Revistas sobre fotografia africana (1) (reeditado de 11/19/2014)
"Perspectives africaines en photographie", Africultures, nº 88, 2012, ed. L'Hermattan
A fotografia africana vista dos Estados Unidos (Fr) // African Photography seen from the United States
Allison Moore
La photographie africaine vue des États-Unis
Allison Moore
Quelles photographies africaines circulent aux États-Unis ? Et dans quels cadres ? Comment sont-elles mises en valeur et quels sont les enjeux de cette valorisation, aussi bien dans le milieu scientifique que dans celui de l'art contemporain ? Quels débats agitent les spécialistes aux États-Unis ? L'essai d'Allison Moore vise à éclaircir ces questions.
Appréhender la photographie africaine à travers le prisme de la recherche américaine, c'est se demander comment les œuvres de photographes africains circulent, comment elles se font connaître aux États-Unis ; autrement dit, qui soutient cette photographie en l'exposant, en écrivant à son sujet ou en documentant ses histoires, afin de permettre à un public le plus large possible de prendre conscience de ses développements actuels.
D'emblée, il faut se rendre à l'évidence : la photographie produite en Afrique ou dans la diaspora est principalement exposée et étudiée aux États-Unis et en Europe, même si cette évidence frappante est contrebalancée par des événements comme les Rencontres de Bamako au Mali ou le dynamisme de la scène photographique sud-africaine.
Par ailleurs, les expositions artistiques occidentales privilégient davantage la photographie d'art produite par les Africains de la diaspora que celle produite sur le continent, car les artistes de la diaspora ont plus recours à des concepts, des esthétiques ou même des médias (grâce à un accès facilité aux technologies numériques et aux logiciels complexes) qui séduisent un public international fasciné par la mode actuelle du "conceptualisme global" (1).
Aux États-Unis, hormis les expositions personnelles de noms comme Seydou Keïta, Malick Sidibé et Samuel Fosso, les deux seules expositions majeures entièrement consacrées à la photographie africaine ont été In/Sight: African Photographers, 1940 to the Present (1996) et Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (2006), toutes deux organisées par Okwui Enwezor (In/Sigh avec Clare Bell, Olu Oguibe, Danielle Tilkin et Octavio Zaya). Zwelethu Mthethwa et David Goldblatt ont également été célébrés individuellement : Goldblatt au Jewish Museum de New York durant l'été 2010 ; le Museum of Modern Art à New York a acheté des photos de Mthethwa, tandis que Tracy Rose a exposé au Walker Art Center de Minneapolis. Mais les artistes sud-africains occupent une position à part sur le marché de l'art international grâce au réseau de galeries et de musées de leur pays. Aussi, les expositions de photographie sud-africaine et leurs catalogues tels que Darkroom: Photography and New Media in South Africa, 1950 to the Present de Tosha Grantham (Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 2009) pourraient-ils servir de modèles aux futures études sur la photographie entreprises sur le reste du continent, à la fois en limitant la "photographie africaine" à un contenu national et en approfondissant plusieurs aspects de cette photographie par des études critiques sérieuses.
À la différence d'Okwui Enwezor qui semble-t-il favoriserait les artistes africains issus d'une certaine élite intellectuelle, résidant pour certains en dehors de l'Afrique, les chercheurs ont tendance à privilégier la "culture visuelle", c'est-à-dire la photographie locale entendue comme entreprise commerciale et sociale, plutôt que purement artistique. Cela semble être par exemple le cas de la recherche allemande représentée par les travaux de Heike Behrend, Tobias Wendl et Christraud Geary (qui vit et travaille aux États-Unis mais est d'origine allemande) (2). Cette approche met moins l'accent sur les individus que sur l'histoire culturelle du support. Le problème pointé par certains critiques est que cela ne différerait pas beaucoup des études anthropologiques qui relèguent l'art à une forme de production culturelle parmi tant d'autres. Bien que l'anthropologie ait réévalué son approche de "l'autre", par le passé, les anthropologues ont bien souvent manqué de discernement et d'autocritique, leur discours ayant entre autres servi de caution à l'oppression coloniale.
Il convient ici de souligner que la distinction faite entre la "photographie d'art" et la "culture visuelle" existe aussi dans les études sur les photographies occidentales et que ce n'est pas seulement vis-à-vis de l'Afrique qu'une approche plus "sociologique" ou "culturelle" est privilégiée. Ainsi, l'approche historique de certains chercheurs comme Geoffrey Batchen, Naomi Rosenblum et Michel Frizot couvre-t-elle l'intégralité de la production photographique, qu'elle soit scientifique, médicale, vernaculaire, journalistique, artistique ou conceptuelle (3).
En revanche, une approche plus classique adoptée par les historiens de l'art se concentrera uniquement sur l'étude des aspects esthétiques de la photographie considérée ici comme un art, allant même jusqu'à réduire l'histoire de la photographie du XIXe siècle à un discours purement esthétique. Il serait donc sans doute utile que les chercheurs et les commissaires de la photographie africaine, souvent en désaccord dans leurs approches méthodologiques respectives, reconnaissent qu'un schisme identique existe aussi au sein de l'histoire de la photographie occidentale et qu'il peut être pertinent d'étudier aussi cette photographie occidentale à travers le filtre de l'anthropologie ou de la sociologie, comme l'a fait Pierre Bourdieu dans Un art moyen. Essai sur les usages sociaux de la photographie (4).
Aux États-Unis, les spécialistes d'art africain dit "traditionnel" se réfèrent également à la "culture visuelle", puisque la définition occidentale de l'art destiné aux musées ne s'applique pas aux objets ou rituels produits dans les sociétés africaines précoloniales. La préférence américaine pour les "traditions" précoloniales et la notion désuète d'"authenticité", construite à l'origine par les chercheurs occidentaux eux-mêmes (5), ont "détourné" pendant de nombreuses décennies la recherche africaniste des mouvements artistiques modernes et contemporains, y compris de la photographie, de la vidéo et du cinéma. En 1991, Susan Vogel organise Africa Explores au Center for African Arts à New York : cette exposition majeure va susciter une importante réaction de la critique, bien qu'il faille également noter le rôle joué par de précédentes expositions qui ont été moins remarquées (Contemporary African Arts, Field Museum, 1974 ; Contemporary African Art, Howard University, 1977 ; Contemporary African Artists?: Changing Tradition, Studio Museum à Harlem, 1990).
Aborder l'histoire de la photographie en Afrique sous l'angle de la "culture visuelle" rejoint les approches méthodologiques des chercheurs spécialisés dans les arts africains précoloniaux et de certains historiens de la photographie. Mais qu'en est-il de la photographie d'art, celle qui est produite pour les musées occidentaux et qui aborde des questions en relation avec les préoccupations occidentales, internationales de l'art et de l'esthétique ? Bien que cette pratique de la photographie tournée vers l'Occident soit relativement nouvelle dans beaucoup de régions d'Afrique, elle gagne rapidement du terrain, surtout dans les centres urbains où existent des écoles de photographie, des regroupements d'artistes ou des centres d'art. Serait-il possible alors, tant dans le milieu de la recherche que celui de l'art, de combiner les facteurs esthétique et commercial, artistique et social ?
Abolir ces frontières est certainement ce que proposait Enwezor, en désignant Keïta comme un maître moderne, dans la veine du portraitiste allemand August Sander (6). Le fait est que le champ de la photographie est bien plus désordonné que nous suggèrent ces classifications tranchées. Presque tous les photographes dits "artistes" ont fait de la photographie commerciale et beaucoup de photographes commerciaux se considèrent comme des créateurs dans leur domaine. Dans Snap Judgments, Enwezor abordait également la photographie contemporaine comme un mélange de pratiques, comprenant la photographie de mode et le portrait documentaire (mais non commercial) parmi les œuvres à orientation plus artistique. En même temps, cette exposition avait pour objectif de fuir la vision hégémonique de la photographie africaine se résumant au portrait de studio commercial, pour ouvrir le public américain à d'autres genres et pratiques.
À long terme, on peut penser que la majorité des portraitistes du continent seront simplement appréciés pour le rôle qu'ils jouent au sein de leurs communautés, tandis qu'un petit nombre sera considéré pour son talent artistique, tout comme cela se passe dans les pays occidentaux. Par ailleurs, il est souhaitable qu'à l'avenir de nouveaux corpus de photographies soient valorisés, notamment ceux issus des sciences, de la médecine ou de l'anthropologie, ainsi que les fonds d'archives documentaires appartenant aux agences de presse. Le champ doit rester ouvert aux différentes approches méthodologiques et aux nouvelles découvertes, car il faudrait beaucoup plus de recherches pour combler nos connaissances lacunaires sur la photographie en Afrique. Les champs de la culture visuelle et de l'art ne devraient pas rester coupés l'un de l'autre, ni pris dans des désaccords insignifiants qui divisent. Un champ débattu est quelque chose de positif, mais les critiques acerbes ne sont pas nécessaires et ne font que dissuader les chercheurs voulant s'y engager, par crainte d'être attaqués. En ce sens, le travail pionnier d'Enwezor a été absolument essentiel dans le domaine de la photographie africaine et l'on ne peut sous-estimer son influence.
Aux États-Unis, la recherche universitaire sur la photographie africaine s'est surtout développée dans les départements d'anthropologie et d'études africaines, plutôt qu'en histoire de l'art. Ces nouvelles approches de l'histoire de la photographie, qui mettent l'accent sur les études culturelles et qui considèrent toute photographie comme de la "culture visuelle", en contraste avec une minorité de photographies envisagées comme de "l'art", signifient que les historiens de la photographie viennent aux photographies africaines avec une ouverture disciplinaire marquée. D'un autre côté, ils semblent ne pas avoir suffisamment développé de savoirs interdisciplinaires, pour être à même d'analyser toute production culturelle. De plus, à l'instar des spécialistes de l'art africain qui ont tendance à ignorer l'art contemporain, ceux qui travaillent sur la photographie africaine n'ont parfois pas la moindre connaissance des stratégies artistiques contemporaines, ce qui risque d'altérer leur compréhension de la photographie d'art visible sur le marché international, tandis que les commissaires, eux, s'intéressent moins aux productions photographiques qui ne se conforment pas aux normes esthétiques et conceptuelles dictées par le marché de l'art mondial.
À considérer ces différentes approches dans les milieux de la recherche et de l'art aux États-Unis, il devient clair que toutes sont nécessaires et qu'elles peuvent revêtir des fonctions différentes : montrer que la photographie contemporaine est importante afin d'ouvrir un nouveau champ ; que la recherche l'est tout autant afin de documenter l'histoire et d'élaborer des théories plus larges. Mais considérer les approches des chercheurs et celles des commissaires permet aussi de pointer quelques-uns des conflits qui ont eu lieu entre eux - des conflits qui ne devraient pas durcir les positions au point de refuser le débat et de mettre fin au dialogue, mais qui devraient au contraire remettre en cause les définitions et questionner les frontières de manière productive, en ouvrant ainsi d'infinies possibilités pour la recherche à venir.
Pour avoir travaillé sur l'exposition Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (International Center of Photography de New York, 2006) et mené des recherches sur les Rencontres de Bamako, je peux affirmer que ces deux événements avaient des perspectives très différentes. Snap Judgments a en effet été conçue comme la suite, dix ans plus tard, de In/Sight, African Photographers from 1940s to the Present, présenté au Guggenheim Museum de New York. À la différence de la Biennale de Bamako, qui organise son exposition panafricaine sur appel à candidatures, celle-ci était le choix totalement assumé d'un commissaire, Okwui Enwezor, qui avait réalisé pour ce faire plusieurs courtes missions de prospection en Afrique et en Europe. Si cette exposition présentait peu d'artistes basés aux États-Unis, elle mettait par contre en valeur le travail de photographes basés en Europe et en Afrique, pour certains "nouveaux venus" (comme Mamadou Gomis ou Michael Tsegaye). Montée à New York tout comme In/Sight, même si le lieu d'exposition, ici l'International Center of Photography (ICP), avait changé (7), Snap Judgments était une exposition singulière, destinée à fournir un instantané, si l'on peut dire, de l'activité photographique contemporaine sur le continent et dans la diaspora.
Par la suite, en tant que commissaire adjoint de l'ICP, Enwezor a organisé Archive Fever (2008), prouvant ainsi qu'il était capable de varier les sujets et les supports et refusant d'être catalogué uniquement comme un commissaire pour l'Afrique contemporaine (8). L'impact de Snap Judgments, où les artistes sud-africains étaient fortement représentés, est bien entendu difficile à mesurer, surtout en Afrique, mais l'un de ses principaux effets a été de donner davantage de visibilité internationale et américaine à certains artistes. Ainsi, Nontsikelelo'Lolo' Veleko est probablement l'artiste qui a le plus bénéficié de Snap Judgments : par la suite, elle a exposé à la galerie Kyle Kauffman (9) à New York en 2007 et a tout dernièrement fait partie de l'exposition Global Africa Project au Museum of Modern Arts and Design de New York (2010-2011). Dans l'ensemble, il semblerait que les artistes qui étaient déjà établis aient été confirmés dans leur position et que ceux qui ne l'étaient pas aient gagné en reconnaissance, sans pour autant faire réellement décoller leur carrière. Si à ce jour Snap Judgments n'a pas eu d'impact retentissant sur la carrière de la plupart de ces artistes - on ne doit pas oublier que les choses fonctionnent lentement, par effet multiplicateur, et que c'est aux artistes de savoir "tirer avantage" du fait d'être exposés sur la scène internationale -, c'est notamment parce que ce n'était pas là la priorité d'Enwezor en tant que commissaire. En effet, il faut s'éloigner d'une vision centrée sur l'artiste pour comprendre les objectifs d'un commissaire, qui seront toujours ambivalents, puisqu'il fonctionne aujourd'hui autant comme un critique d'art que comme celui qui détermine les canons ou agit comme "découvreur" de nouveaux talents. C'est pourquoi un commissaire ne peut pas, et ne doit pas, être trop concerné par la carrière d'un artiste. Ce qu'Enwezor a réussi à faire, c'est de présenter à un public américain des œuvres africaines qui dépassent largement la tradition du portrait - établie dans la perception publique depuis In/Sight, bien qu'il y ait eu une plus grande variété d'œuvres présentées dans cette exposition que l'on ait tendance à se le rappeler - dans le but de donner une visibilité encore plus grande à la photographie africaine aux États-Unis.
En même temps, beaucoup des œuvres présentées dans Snap Judgments puisaient leur inspiration précisément dans le "conceptualisme global" qui n'est ni très populaire, ni très répandu chez la plupart des praticiens en Afrique et qui donne donc plutôt un "instantané" différent de ce qui se fait d'un point de vue plus large en termes de culture visuelle. Le fait est que la "photographie d'art" est un genre relativement nouveau pour la majorité des photographes du continent. Toutefois, même avant qu'elle ne soit accessible et praticable dans beaucoup d'endroits, des artistes comme Samuel Fosso de la Centrafrique ou Youssouf Sogodogo du Mali, entre autres, ont produit des œuvres aux qualités indéniablement artistiques et ce malgré un accès limité à la "culture photographique" pour renforcer leurs inspirations.
À la différence de Snap Judgments, qui avait la tâche plutôt simple de mettre en lumière les derniers développements en matière de photographie sur le continent et dans la diaspora, les enjeux qui sous-tendent les Rencontres de Bamako s'avèrent plus chargés politiquement et socialement, notamment parce que cette biennale a lieu sur le continent. Les Rencontres sont destinées à générer - et jusqu'à un certain point, elles le font - de l'intérêt et des opportunités pour la photographie d'art sur le continent. Initiées par des photographes français et soutenues par le gouvernement français, ce festival a traversé une série de cycles, tout en construisant un vivier de participants - artistes, commissaires, chercheurs. L'édition de 1998 semble avoir été la plus "malienne" : même le titre Ja Taa ! (Prendre l'image) était en bambara, la langue véhiculaire du Mali. Suite à l'arrivée de Simon Njami qui a pris les rênes de la manifestation en tant que commissaire principal de 2001 à 2007, les Rencontres ont concentré tous leurs efforts à éveiller l'intérêt du monde de l'art international. Dans un entretien personnel réalisé en juillet 2010, Simon Njami avouait que s'il était resté commissaire principal pendant quatre éditions, c'était parce qu'il voulait que l'événement reçoive suffisamment de publicité pour devenir une institution viable après son départ. Bien qu'il y ait souvent dans les biennales des tensions entre le national et l'international, le fait que les Français, via l'opérateur culturel CulturesFrance, devenu depuis l'Institut français, continuent à financer les Rencontres et à produire ses catalogues, exacerbe les tensions locales. À un moment où les Maliens font valoir leur désir de contrôler certains aspects de ce festival et d'utiliser cette exposition comme un moteur du changement, l'Institut français semble tourner son intérêt vers la création d'une biennale contemporaine au Bénin (d'après un entretien avec Lucie Touya, chargée de mission en arts visuels à l'Institut français, en juillet 2010). Mais les Rencontres sont en train de gagner davantage de visibilité en tant qu'événement photographique d'envergure et, avec de l'espoir, continueront à être un rassemblement impressionnant dans les décennies à venir.
Ce qui s'est passé sur le plan local à Bamako grâce aux Rencontres est loin d'être insignifiant. Des centres de formation photographiques ont été créés, notamment Promo Femme (10) - Centre de formation en audiovisuel pour les jeunes filles - qui a réellement permis à de jeunes maliennes d'avoir accès à une formation de photographe, une profession auparavant entièrement masculine. Lors des entretiens que j'ai menés auprès de photographes au Mali durant l'été 2006, bien que quelques plaintes aient concerné la manière dont CulturesFrance/l'Institut français gérait les Rencontres, personne ne regrettait leur existence, ni ne souhaitait leur disparition. En effet, elles donnent aux photographes maliens, dont le quotidien est davantage tourné vers le portrait commercial et le reportage, l'occasion d'explorer l'expression de soi et la photographie créative, auparavant inaccessibles. Toutefois, le vœu de Njami de trouver pour les Rencontres des commissaires basés sur le continent n'est pas encore exaucé, peut-être que cela viendra. L'exposition A Useful Dream: African Photography 1960-2010, qu'il a présentée au BOZAR de Bruxelles, confirmait un certain nombre d'artistes habitués du circuit des expositions de photographie africaine mentionnées ci-dessus, ainsi que quelques nouveaux venus. Avec A Useful Dream, Njami poursuit son projet, celui de rendre visibles les travaux d'artistes africains à un public basé en Europe, tout en nous rappelant qu'un nombre grandissant de photographes attend toujours de montrer leurs visions du continent - passées et présentes - et dont l'avenir sera bientôt consigné et imaginé dans des formes toujours plus variées.
1- J'entends par "conceptualisme global" cette tendance dans les expositions internationales et sur le marché de l'art à privilégier une approche conceptuelle de l'art. Tout nouveau média est considéré d'emblée comme conceptuel et les pratiques artistiques traditionnelles comme la peinture ou la photographie doivent maintenant, elles aussi, suivre cette tendance pour ne pas sembler obsolètes.
2- Lire Snap Me One! Studiofotografen in Afrika, édité par Heike Behrend et Tobias Wendl, Munich, Prestel, 1998. Voir également Behrend, "Photo Magic: Photographs in Practices of Healing and Harming in East Africa", Journal of Religion in Africa, vol. 33, no. 2 (2003), p. 129145 ; "‘Feeling Global'. The Likoni Ferry Photographers of Mombasa, Kenya", African Arts, vol. 33, no. 3 (automne 2001), p. 70-77 et 96 ; "Fragmented Visions: Photo Collages by Two Ugandan Photographers", Visual Anthropology, vol. 14, no. 3 (2001), p. 301-320 ; "Love à la Hollywood and Bombay: Kenyan Postcolonial Studio Photography", Paideuma, 44 (1998), p. 139-153. Lire aussi Behrend et Jean-François Werner (éd. invités), "Photographies and Modernities in Africa", Visual Anthropology, vol. 14, no. 3 (2001). Lire Tobias Wendl, "Entangled Traditions: Photography and the History of Media in Southern Ghana", in RES: Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics, 39 (printemps 2001), p. 78-100. Voir enfin Christraud Geary, In and Out of Focus: Images from Central Africa, 1885-1960. Washington, D.C. & Londres, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution & Philip Wilson Pub., 2002.
3- Lire Naomi Rosenblum, Une histoire mondiale de la photographie (1992) ; Michel Frizot (dir.), Nouvelle histoire de la photographie (1994) and Mary Warner Marien¸ Photography: A Cultural History (2002). De Geoffrey Batchen, lire entre autres Each Wild Idea: Photography Writing History, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 2002 et Forget Me Not: Photography and Remembrance, Princeton, NJ., Princeton Architectural Press, 2006.
4- Publié en 1965 par les Éditions de Minuit.
5- Lire Sidney Kasfir, "African Art and Authenticity: A Text with a Shadow", in Olu Oguibe et Okwui Enwezor (éd.), Reading the Contemporary: African Art from Theory to the Marketplace, Londres, Institute of International Visual Arts, 1999, p. 88-113, de même qu'un numéro spécial d'African Arts, vol. 9, no. 3 (Los Angeles, 1976) consacré à la question de l'authenticité.
6- Une exposition conjointe de ces deux photographes - August Sander and Seydou Keïta: Portraiture and Social Identity - a été récemment inaugurée à New-York au Walther Collection Project Space (23 septembre 2011-10 mars 2012). Dans le mailing de lancement de l'événement, l'on pouvait lire que le travail de ces artistes avait déjà été présenté de façon dialogique lors de l'exposition inaugurale de la Walther Collection à Neu-Ulm/Burlafingen, en Allemagne, en 2010 : Events of the Self: Portraiture and Social Identity, dont le commissariat était assuré par Okwui Enwezor.
7- À noter que l'ICP a davantage intérêt que le Musée Guggenheim à inclure la photographie africaine dans l'histoire de la photographie mondiale.
8- ll a également été commissaire de la Documenta 11 et des Biennales de Séville, Gwangju et de la seconde Biennale de Johannesburg.
9- Voir [le site de la galerie]
10- Pour une présentation de Promo Femme, lire : [ici]
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African Photography seen from the United States
Allison Moore
How does African photography circulate in the United States? In what institutions is it shown? How does its meaning change according to the context in which it is shown, whether as anthropological documents or as contemporary art? What are the debates about African photography among scholars, curators and critics in the United States? The essay by Allison Moore attempts to answer these questions.
To understand African photography in relation to American scholarship requires that we examine the question of how photographs by Africans are circulated and publicized within the US: i.e. who supports photography by exhibiting it, writing about it, or documenting its histories, thus allowing a wider audience to become aware of current developments.?It is immediately striking and well-known that African photographic production and its resultant scholarship and exhibitions mostly take place in different politico-geographies. By and large, the photography that is produced in Africa and the diaspora is exhibited and written about in the US and Europe, although Mali's Bamako Biennale and the dynamic exhibition scene in South Africa are two important exceptions to this general rule. The art photography produced by Africans in the diaspora tends to be privileged in Western art exhibitions over much photography made on the continent because diasporic artists tend to use concepts, aesthetics, and even media (access to and knowledge of digital technologies and complex software programs) that appeal to an international audience fascinated by the current mode of "global conceptualism." (1)
In the US there have been relatively few exhibitions of African photography, however, to even prove this general point. In/sight: African Photographers, 1940 to the Present (1996) and Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (2006), both curated by Owkui Enwezor (In/sight with Clare Bell, Olu Oguibe, Danielle Tilkin, and Octavio Zaya) are the only two major exhibitions in the US that dealt solely with photography from Africa, aside from solo shows on major figures like Seydou Keïta, Malick Sidibé and Samuel Fosso. Zwelethu Mthethwa and David Goldblatt have also been celebrated individually (Goldblatt at the Jewish Museum in New York in summer 2010; Mthethwa's work has been purchased by the Museum of Modern Art in New York, Tracy Rose was shown at the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis) but South Africa's artists are positioned differently vis à vis the international art world because of the country's structure of gallery and museum networks. Indeed, perhaps exhibitions and accompanying catalogs on South Africa, like Tosha Grantham's Darkroom: Photography and New Media in South Africa, 1950 to the Present (Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 2009), can provide a model for future scholarship for photography across the continent, both in terms of limiting'African photography' to national content and in providing a range of genres accompanied by thoughtful and critical scholarship.
In contrast to Enwezor, who has been said to privilege elite-educated artists, some of whom live and work outside of Africa, academic scholars tend to privilege what would be called'visual culture' in the context of art historical discourse; i.e. photography produced as a commercial and social enterprise, rather than as a purely artistic one, by practitioners who live on the African continent. This seems to be true in German scholarship as well, seen in the work of Heike Behrend, Tobias Wendl, and Christraud Geary (who now lives and works in the US, but is of German heritage). (2)
The'visual culture' approach to scholarship tends to focus less on individuals and more on cultural histories of the medium, and the problem that some critics see is that it does not seem to differ significantly from anthropological scholarship, which relegates art to one among many forms of cultural production. Anthropology as a discipline is seen as especially suspect in regard to the study of Africa as historically much anthropology was uncritical of its hegemonic approaches and the oppressive uses to which such scholarship was put.
It is important in this context to recognize that the schism between understanding photography as'fine art' and as'visual culture' exists in Western scholarship on photography as well, and that it is not simply in relation to Africa that a more'sociological' or'cultural' approach should be taken. One approach to the history of photography, pioneered by scholars like Geoffrey Batchen and Elizabeth Edwards, takes all of photographic production within its scope (science, medical, vernacular, photojournalism, art, conceptual). In contrast, a more traditional art historical approach focuses on specifically art-oriented aesthetic developments in the history of photography, and seeks even to reduce photography's 19th century history to a discourse on aesthetic terms. Thus it might be useful for scholars and curators of African photography who disagree over methodological approaches to recognize that a similar schism exists within the history of Western photography, and that to turn an anthropological lens on Western photography is needed as well; one useful example is the sociological study by Pierre Bourdieu, Photography: A Middle-Brow Art (Stanford, 1996). (3)
African art scholarship in the US, like scholarship on African photography, also has traditionally dealt with the field of'visual culture', as the Western definition of museum-oriented art did not apply to the objects or rituals produced in African precolonial societies. The American preference for precolonial traditions and antiquated notions of'authenticity,' which were originally constructed by Western scholarship in the first place, held scholars back from investigating modern and contemporary art movements as well as photography, video and film. (4) Susan Vogel's exhibition at the Center for African Arts in New York, Africa Explores:20th Century African Art (1991) was the first major US show to garner a good deal of critical attention, although there had been several earlier precedents (Contemporary African Arts, Field Museum, 1974; Contemporary African Art, Howard University 1977; and Contemporary African Artists: Changing Tradition, Studio Museum in Harlem, 1990) that received less attention. Thus a'visual culture' approach to the history of photography in Africa dovetails with the methodological approaches of scholars trained both in precolonial African arts and of some photo historians.
But what of art photography, made for a mostly Western art market, that engages with specific concerns central to Western, international notions of art and aesthetics? While it is a relatively new genre in much of Africa, it is one that is quickly gaining interest, especially in urban areas where an education in photography is available. Is it possible, in scholarship or in exhibitions, to combine the aesthetic with the commercial, the artistic with the social? Eliding these boundaries is certainly what Enwezor suggested by labeling Keïta a modernist master, in the vein of the German portraitist August Sander. The truth is that photography as a field is far messier than such neat divisions would have us believe. Almost all'art' photographers have made commercial work, and many commercial photographers consider themselves skilled and creative in their fields.
Enwezor approached contemporary photography as a mélange of practices in Snap Judgments, including fashion photography and documentary (but not commercial) portraiture among works that were more artistically-oriented. At the same time, that show's mission was specifically to move away from the prevalence of interest in commercial studio portraiture in Africa, thereby exposing American audiences to other forms and genres of work. In the long run, while some portrait photographers on the continent will be recognized as brilliant practitioners, most will be appreciated for their role in their communities' histories, just as most commercial Western portraitists are not considered great artists. Bodies of medical and scientific and anthropological photographs will be discovered, as well as important documentary archives belonging to news agencies. The field must remain open to methodological approaches and to new discoveries, for there is much more scholarship needed, and so many gaps in our knowledge. The fields of visual culture and art should not cut themselves off from each other and become engaged in petty and divisive arguments. A debated field is a good one, but bitter criticisms are unnecessary and serve to scare scholars from engaging in the field for fear of being attacked. Enwezor's pioneering work has been absolutely essential to the field of African photography, and his influence cannot be under-acknowledged.
In the US, the path of academic scholarship on African photography has largely been pursued through African art and anthropology departments, rather than by historians of photography. New approaches to the history of photography, emphasizing cultural studies and viewing the whole of photography as'visual culture,' in contrast to the minority of photographs which are meant to constitute'art,' has meant that scholars in the history of photography come to African photographies with a wide disciplinary scope. African art scholars tend to be less appreciative of contemporary art while curators tend to be less interested in photographic production that does not fall into the aesthetic and conceptual standards dictated by the global art market. On the other hand, photography historians tend to lack the interdisciplinary cultural knowledge of Africa that should inform the analysis of any cultural production from a specific locale. Both African art and photography historians sometimes lack the knowledge of contemporary art strategies that may impede their understanding of art photography shown on the global market.
By mapping out the different positions in scholarship and curatorship in the US, as I have tried to do above, it becomes clear that all approaches are needed, and that they can serve somewhat different functions: to exhibit contemporary photography is important in creating a new field; scholarship is important in documenting histories and generating broader theories. But mapping out scholarly and curatorial positions also outlines some of the conflicts that have occurred among scholars and curators - conflicts that should not force positions to harden into oppositional stances that refuse debate and shut down dialogue, but that can instead revitalize definitions and question boundaries and productively investigate the very nature of the field, thereby opening up unlimited possibilities for future scholarship.
A Comparison of Important and Relevant Exhibitions
As a scholar who worked on Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (2006) at the International Center of Photography in New York, and who has researched and written on the Bamako Biennale in Mali, I will assert that the two exhibitions held very different outlooks and have had different functions. Snap Judgments was conceived by its curator, Okwui Enwezor, as a follow-up, decade-later response to In/Sight, African Photographers from 1940s to the Present (1996) at the Guggenheim Museum in New York. Unlike the Biennale, Snap Judgments was not a juried exhibition; it was a handpicked show with decisions on works made solely by Enwezor, on several short trips across Africa and Europe. Few of the artists were based in the US. Some were based in Europe, and some new photographers working on the African continent were exposed to the international market by Snap Judgments. Shown in the same city as In/Sight although at a different venue (it is worth noting that the ICP is making an important step by including African photography within the world history of photography), Snap Judgments was a singular exhibition, meant to provide a snap shot, as it were, of the state of contemporary photographic activity on the continent and in the diaspora.
As ICP's adjunct curator, Enwezor went on to curate Archive Fever: Uses of the Document in Contemporary Art two years later, thus showing his versatility in traversing subject matter as well as medium, and refusing to be stereotyped as solely a'contemporary African' curator (he also curated Documenta 11, the Seville Biennale and the Gwangju Biennale, as well as the 2nd Johannesburg Biennale). The impact of Snap Judgments, in which South African artists constituted a strong presence, is of course difficult to measure, especially in Africa, but one main effect was to give certain artists more international and American exposure. The artist who has benefitted the most from Snap Judgments, it seems, was Nontsikelelo'Lolo' Veleko, who subsequently was shown at Kyle Kauffman Gallery in New York in 2007, and has since been included in New York in Global Africa Project (2010-11) at the Museum of Modern Arts and Design. For the most part, the effect of Snap Judgments seemed to allow those artists who had established careers to become somewhat more established, and those who did not to gain a bit of recognition; but in general the show did not seem to dramatically affect artists' careers.
While Snap Judgments' effect may not have had a strong impact on most artists' careers as of yet (such things take time and it is up to the artist to'take advantage,' as it were, of being shown internationally), it must be stated that furthering artists' careers was not Enwezor's curatorial intent. We must move away from an artist-centric view to understand the goals of a curator, which can be ambivalent toward artists, since curators function today much as art critics did in the past - curators now determine a canon as well as show new work. For that reason, a curator cannot, and should not, be overly concerned with an artist's career. What Enwezor succeeded in doing was exposing a public to work from Africa that went far beyond the portrait tradition - established in the public perception by In/Sight (although there was a wider variety of work in that show than is usually recalled) - and thus creating a vaster exposure to African photography than previously had existed for an American public.
At the same time, many works in Snap Judgments utilized the very style of global conceptualism that is neither popular nor prevalent among most practitioners in Africa, and thus gives a different'snapshot' of the type of work that is being made from a broader, visual culture perspective. The truth is that'art photography' is a relatively new genre for most of the continent, but even before'art photography' was available in many places as a conceptual option, practitioners like Samuel Fosso of Democratic Republic of Congo and Youssouf Sogodogo of Mali, among others, made creative and inarguably artistic photographs on their own, despite lacking a'culture' of art photography to support their inspirations.
In contrast to Snap Judgments, which had the straightforward task of publicizing new developments on the continent and in the diaspora, the underlying mission of the Bamako Encounters or Bamako Biennale has been more politically and socially loaded, as well as more significant to Africa, because it is a biannual exhibition held on the continent. The Biennale was meant to foster, and to some extent has fostered, interest in and opportunity for making art photography across the continent. Founded by French photographers and supported by the French government, the Biennale went through a series of iterations while building a constituency of participants - artists, curators, scholars, gallerists. The 1998 Biennale seems to have had the most Malian agency: even the title, Ja Taa! "Prendre l'image", was in Bamanankan, Mali's lingua franca, as well as in French. After curator Simon Njami assumed stewardship as chief curator from 2001-2007, the Biennale became effective in terms of generating some global artworld interest. Njami has said that he remained chief curator because he wanted the event to gain enough publicity to remain a viable institution after he left. (5) While tensions usually exist in Biennales between the national and the international, obviously the fact that the French continue to fund the Biennale and produce its catalogs means that local tensions are stronger than elsewhere. At the moment when Malians are asserting their desire to have control over aspects of the Biennale, and to use this exhibition as a force for change, CulturesFrance (now l'Institut français) has turned its interest toward founding a contemporary biennale in Benin. The first edition, Regard Bénin, occurred in the summer of 2010. But certainly the Bamako Biennale is gaining more exposure as a significant photography event, and hopefully will continue to be an impressive gathering for decades to come.
Locally, what has happened in Bamako as a result of the Biennale has been spectacular. Photography schools have sprouted, and a special school for women's photography [Promo-femme : Centre de formation en audiovisuel pour les jeunes filles ] now unfortunately closed due to lack of government support, was for the duration of its existence hugely influential in allowing women to enter the field of photography, a formerly all-male profession. When I interviewed photographers in Mali in the summer of 2006, there were a few complaints about how the French handle the Biennale but certainly no one wished that it had not been invented, or thought it should end. It gave Malian photographers who were well-versed in portraiture and reportage the opportunity to explore self-expression and creative photography in ways previously unavailable. While Njami was hopeful that curators for the Biennale could be found from among the ranks of continent-based curators, that has not happened yet.
Njami's own recent effort, A Useful Dream: African Photography 1960-2010, shown in Brussels at BOZAR (2010), displays a number of artists familiar to the circuit of African photography exhibits mentioned above, as well as some photographers new to this lexicon. A Useful Dream continues Njami's project to display work from Africa, enabling a European- based audience to view these works, while reminding us that an inexhaustible number of photographs still wait to show us their visions of the continent's past and present, with its future soon to be duly recorded and imagined in ever more varied forms.
1. What I mean by "global conceptualism" is how prevalent the inclusion of a conceptual approach to art has become in international art exhibitions and on the global market. All new media are seen as conceptual, and traditional media such as painting or photography must now also have a conceptual aspect or risk seeming redundant.
2. See Snap Me One! Studiofotografen in Afrika, edited by Heike Behrend and Tobias Wendl (Munich: Münchner Stadtmuseum and Prestel, 1998). See also Behrend, "Photo Magic: Photographs in Practices of Healing and Harming in East Africa" Journal of Religion in Africa 33 no. 2 (2003): 129-145 ; "‘Feeling Global' The Likoni Ferry Photographers of Mombasa, Kenya" African Arts vol. 33 no. 3 (Autumn 2001): 70-77, 96 ; "Fragmented Visions: Photo Collages by Two Ugandan Photographers" Visual Anthropology vol. 14 no. 3 (2001): 301- 320 ; "Love à la Hollywood and Bombay: Kenyan Postcolonial Studio Photography" Paideuma vol. 44 (1998): 139-153. See also Behrend and Jean-François Werner, guest eds. "Photographies and Modernities in Africa", Visual Anthropology vol. 14 no. 3 (2001). See Tobias Wendl, "Entangled Traditions: Photography and the History of Media in Southern Ghana" in RES: Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics vol. 39 (Spring 2001): 78-100. See Christraud Geary, In and Out of Focus: Images from Central Africa, 1885-1960. Washington, D.C. & London: National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution & Philip Wilson, Publishers, 2002 ; Images from Bamum: German Colonial Photography at the Court of King Njoya. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988 ; "Early Images from Benin at the National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution." African Arts vol. 30 (Summer 1997): 44-53.
3. See Naomi Rosenblum, A World History of Photography (Abbeville Press, 1984); Michel Frizot, A New History of Photography (Konemann, 1999) and Mary Warner Marien, Photography: A Cultural History (Prentice Hall, 2002). For Batchen, see "Vernacular Photographies" in History of Photography vol. 24 no. 2 (Summer 2000); see also Batchen, Each Wild Idea: Photography Writing History (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), Forget Me Not: Photography and Remembrance (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006) and also Batchen, Yoshiaki Kai and Masashi Kohara, Suspending Time - life - photography - death (Nagaizumi-cho, Shizuoka: Izu Photo Museum, 2010).
4. See Sidney Kasfir, "African Art and Authenticity: A Text with a Shadow" in Reading the Contemporary: African Art from Theory to the Marketplace, eds. Olu Oguibe and Okwui Enwezor (London: Institute of International Visual Arts, 1999): 88-113 and a special issue of African Arts, vol. 9 no. 3 (Los Angeles, 1976) dedicated to the issue of authenticity.
5. Communicated in a personal interview, July 2010, Paris.
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How does African photography circulate in the United States? In what institutions is it shown? How does its meaning change according to the context in which it is shown, whether as anthropological documents or as contemporary art? What are the debates about African photography among scholars, curators and critics in the United States? The essay by Allison Moore attempts to answer these questions.
To understand African photography in relation to American scholarship requires that we examine the question of how photographs by Africans are circulated and publicized within the US: i.e. who supports photography by exhibiting it, writing about it, or documenting its histories, thus allowing a wider audience to become aware of current developments.?It is immediately striking and well-known that African photographic production and its resultant scholarship and exhibitions mostly take place in different politico-geographies. By and large, the photography that is produced in Africa and the diaspora is exhibited and written about in the US and Europe, although Mali's Bamako Biennale and the dynamic exhibition scene in South Africa are two important exceptions to this general rule. The art photography produced by Africans in the diaspora tends to be privileged in Western art exhibitions over much photography made on the continent because diasporic artists tend to use concepts, aesthetics, and even media (access to and knowledge of digital technologies and complex software programs) that appeal to an international audience fascinated by the current mode of "global conceptualism." (1)In the US there have been relatively few exhibitions of African photography, however, to even prove this general point. In/sight: African Photographers, 1940 to the Present (1996) and Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (2006), both curated by Owkui Enwezor (In/sight with Clare Bell, Olu Oguibe, Danielle Tilkin, and Octavio Zaya) are the only two major exhibitions in the US that dealt solely with photography from Africa, aside from solo shows on major figures like Seydou Keïta, Malick Sidibé and Samuel Fosso. Zwelethu Mthethwa and David Goldblatt have also been celebrated individually (Goldblatt at the Jewish Museum in New York in summer 2010; Mthethwa's work has been purchased by the Museum of Modern Art in New York, Tracy Rose was shown at the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis) but South Africa's artists are positioned differently vis à vis the international art world because of the country's structure of gallery and museum networks. Indeed, perhaps exhibitions and accompanying catalogs on South Africa, like Tosha Grantham's Darkroom: Photography and New Media in South Africa, 1950 to the Present (Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 2009), can provide a model for future scholarship for photography across the continent, both in terms of limiting'African photography' to national content and in providing a range of genres accompanied by thoughtful and critical scholarship.
In contrast to Enwezor, who has been said to privilege elite-educated artists, some of whom live and work outside of Africa, academic scholars tend to privilege what would be called'visual culture' in the context of art historical discourse; i.e. photography produced as a commercial and social enterprise, rather than as a purely artistic one, by practitioners who live on the African continent. This seems to be true in German scholarship as well, seen in the work of Heike Behrend, Tobias Wendl, and Christraud Geary (who now lives and works in the US, but is of German heritage). (2)
The'visual culture' approach to scholarship tends to focus less on individuals and more on cultural histories of the medium, and the problem that some critics see is that it does not seem to differ significantly from anthropological scholarship, which relegates art to one among many forms of cultural production. Anthropology as a discipline is seen as especially suspect in regard to the study of Africa as historically much anthropology was uncritical of its hegemonic approaches and the oppressive uses to which such scholarship was put.
It is important in this context to recognize that the schism between understanding photography as'fine art' and as'visual culture' exists in Western scholarship on photography as well, and that it is not simply in relation to Africa that a more'sociological' or'cultural' approach should be taken. One approach to the history of photography, pioneered by scholars like Geoffrey Batchen and Elizabeth Edwards, takes all of photographic production within its scope (science, medical, vernacular, photojournalism, art, conceptual). In contrast, a more traditional art historical approach focuses on specifically art-oriented aesthetic developments in the history of photography, and seeks even to reduce photography's 19th century history to a discourse on aesthetic terms. Thus it might be useful for scholars and curators of African photography who disagree over methodological approaches to recognize that a similar schism exists within the history of Western photography, and that to turn an anthropological lens on Western photography is needed as well; one useful example is the sociological study by Pierre Bourdieu, Photography: A Middle-Brow Art (Stanford, 1996). (3)
African art scholarship in the US, like scholarship on African photography, also has traditionally dealt with the field of'visual culture', as the Western definition of museum-oriented art did not apply to the objects or rituals produced in African precolonial societies. The American preference for precolonial traditions and antiquated notions of'authenticity,' which were originally constructed by Western scholarship in the first place, held scholars back from investigating modern and contemporary art movements as well as photography, video and film. (4) Susan Vogel's exhibition at the Center for African Arts in New York, Africa Explores:20th Century African Art (1991) was the first major US show to garner a good deal of critical attention, although there had been several earlier precedents (Contemporary African Arts, Field Museum, 1974; Contemporary African Art, Howard University 1977; and Contemporary African Artists: Changing Tradition, Studio Museum in Harlem, 1990) that received less attention. Thus a'visual culture' approach to the history of photography in Africa dovetails with the methodological approaches of scholars trained both in precolonial African arts and of some photo historians.
But what of art photography, made for a mostly Western art market, that engages with specific concerns central to Western, international notions of art and aesthetics? While it is a relatively new genre in much of Africa, it is one that is quickly gaining interest, especially in urban areas where an education in photography is available. Is it possible, in scholarship or in exhibitions, to combine the aesthetic with the commercial, the artistic with the social? Eliding these boundaries is certainly what Enwezor suggested by labeling Keïta a modernist master, in the vein of the German portraitist August Sander. The truth is that photography as a field is far messier than such neat divisions would have us believe. Almost all'art' photographers have made commercial work, and many commercial photographers consider themselves skilled and creative in their fields.
Enwezor approached contemporary photography as a mélange of practices in Snap Judgments, including fashion photography and documentary (but not commercial) portraiture among works that were more artistically-oriented. At the same time, that show's mission was specifically to move away from the prevalence of interest in commercial studio portraiture in Africa, thereby exposing American audiences to other forms and genres of work. In the long run, while some portrait photographers on the continent will be recognized as brilliant practitioners, most will be appreciated for their role in their communities' histories, just as most commercial Western portraitists are not considered great artists. Bodies of medical and scientific and anthropological photographs will be discovered, as well as important documentary archives belonging to news agencies. The field must remain open to methodological approaches and to new discoveries, for there is much more scholarship needed, and so many gaps in our knowledge. The fields of visual culture and art should not cut themselves off from each other and become engaged in petty and divisive arguments. A debated field is a good one, but bitter criticisms are unnecessary and serve to scare scholars from engaging in the field for fear of being attacked. Enwezor's pioneering work has been absolutely essential to the field of African photography, and his influence cannot be under-acknowledged.
In the US, the path of academic scholarship on African photography has largely been pursued through African art and anthropology departments, rather than by historians of photography. New approaches to the history of photography, emphasizing cultural studies and viewing the whole of photography as'visual culture,' in contrast to the minority of photographs which are meant to constitute'art,' has meant that scholars in the history of photography come to African photographies with a wide disciplinary scope. African art scholars tend to be less appreciative of contemporary art while curators tend to be less interested in photographic production that does not fall into the aesthetic and conceptual standards dictated by the global art market. On the other hand, photography historians tend to lack the interdisciplinary cultural knowledge of Africa that should inform the analysis of any cultural production from a specific locale. Both African art and photography historians sometimes lack the knowledge of contemporary art strategies that may impede their understanding of art photography shown on the global market.
By mapping out the different positions in scholarship and curatorship in the US, as I have tried to do above, it becomes clear that all approaches are needed, and that they can serve somewhat different functions: to exhibit contemporary photography is important in creating a new field; scholarship is important in documenting histories and generating broader theories. But mapping out scholarly and curatorial positions also outlines some of the conflicts that have occurred among scholars and curators - conflicts that should not force positions to harden into oppositional stances that refuse debate and shut down dialogue, but that can instead revitalize definitions and question boundaries and productively investigate the very nature of the field, thereby opening up unlimited possibilities for future scholarship.
A Comparison of Important and Relevant Exhibitions
As a scholar who worked on Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (2006) at the International Center of Photography in New York, and who has researched and written on the Bamako Biennale in Mali, I will assert that the two exhibitions held very different outlooks and have had different functions. Snap Judgments was conceived by its curator, Okwui Enwezor, as a follow-up, decade-later response to In/Sight, African Photographers from 1940s to the Present (1996) at the Guggenheim Museum in New York. Unlike the Biennale, Snap Judgments was not a juried exhibition; it was a handpicked show with decisions on works made solely by Enwezor, on several short trips across Africa and Europe. Few of the artists were based in the US. Some were based in Europe, and some new photographers working on the African continent were exposed to the international market by Snap Judgments. Shown in the same city as In/Sight although at a different venue (it is worth noting that the ICP is making an important step by including African photography within the world history of photography), Snap Judgments was a singular exhibition, meant to provide a snap shot, as it were, of the state of contemporary photographic activity on the continent and in the diaspora.
As ICP's adjunct curator, Enwezor went on to curate Archive Fever: Uses of the Document in Contemporary Art two years later, thus showing his versatility in traversing subject matter as well as medium, and refusing to be stereotyped as solely a'contemporary African' curator (he also curated Documenta 11, the Seville Biennale and the Gwangju Biennale, as well as the 2nd Johannesburg Biennale). The impact of Snap Judgments, in which South African artists constituted a strong presence, is of course difficult to measure, especially in Africa, but one main effect was to give certain artists more international and American exposure. The artist who has benefitted the most from Snap Judgments, it seems, was Nontsikelelo'Lolo' Veleko, who subsequently was shown at Kyle Kauffman Gallery in New York in 2007, and has since been included in New York in Global Africa Project (2010-11) at the Museum of Modern Arts and Design. For the most part, the effect of Snap Judgments seemed to allow those artists who had established careers to become somewhat more established, and those who did not to gain a bit of recognition; but in general the show did not seem to dramatically affect artists' careers.
While Snap Judgments' effect may not have had a strong impact on most artists' careers as of yet (such things take time and it is up to the artist to'take advantage,' as it were, of being shown internationally), it must be stated that furthering artists' careers was not Enwezor's curatorial intent. We must move away from an artist-centric view to understand the goals of a curator, which can be ambivalent toward artists, since curators function today much as art critics did in the past - curators now determine a canon as well as show new work. For that reason, a curator cannot, and should not, be overly concerned with an artist's career. What Enwezor succeeded in doing was exposing a public to work from Africa that went far beyond the portrait tradition - established in the public perception by In/Sight (although there was a wider variety of work in that show than is usually recalled) - and thus creating a vaster exposure to African photography than previously had existed for an American public.
At the same time, many works in Snap Judgments utilized the very style of global conceptualism that is neither popular nor prevalent among most practitioners in Africa, and thus gives a different'snapshot' of the type of work that is being made from a broader, visual culture perspective. The truth is that'art photography' is a relatively new genre for most of the continent, but even before'art photography' was available in many places as a conceptual option, practitioners like Samuel Fosso of Democratic Republic of Congo and Youssouf Sogodogo of Mali, among others, made creative and inarguably artistic photographs on their own, despite lacking a'culture' of art photography to support their inspirations.
In contrast to Snap Judgments, which had the straightforward task of publicizing new developments on the continent and in the diaspora, the underlying mission of the Bamako Encounters or Bamako Biennale has been more politically and socially loaded, as well as more significant to Africa, because it is a biannual exhibition held on the continent. The Biennale was meant to foster, and to some extent has fostered, interest in and opportunity for making art photography across the continent. Founded by French photographers and supported by the French government, the Biennale went through a series of iterations while building a constituency of participants - artists, curators, scholars, gallerists. The 1998 Biennale seems to have had the most Malian agency: even the title, Ja Taa! "Prendre l'image", was in Bamanankan, Mali's lingua franca, as well as in French. After curator Simon Njami assumed stewardship as chief curator from 2001-2007, the Biennale became effective in terms of generating some global artworld interest. Njami has said that he remained chief curator because he wanted the event to gain enough publicity to remain a viable institution after he left. (5) While tensions usually exist in Biennales between the national and the international, obviously the fact that the French continue to fund the Biennale and produce its catalogs means that local tensions are stronger than elsewhere. At the moment when Malians are asserting their desire to have control over aspects of the Biennale, and to use this exhibition as a force for change, CulturesFrance (now l'Institut français) has turned its interest toward founding a contemporary biennale in Benin. The first edition, Regard Bénin, occurred in the summer of 2010. But certainly the Bamako Biennale is gaining more exposure as a significant photography event, and hopefully will continue to be an impressive gathering for decades to come.
Locally, what has happened in Bamako as a result of the Biennale has been spectacular. Photography schools have sprouted, and a special school for women's photography [Promo-femme : Centre de formation en audiovisuel pour les jeunes filles ] now unfortunately closed due to lack of government support, was for the duration of its existence hugely influential in allowing women to enter the field of photography, a formerly all-male profession. When I interviewed photographers in Mali in the summer of 2006, there were a few complaints about how the French handle the Biennale but certainly no one wished that it had not been invented, or thought it should end. It gave Malian photographers who were well-versed in portraiture and reportage the opportunity to explore self-expression and creative photography in ways previously unavailable. While Njami was hopeful that curators for the Biennale could be found from among the ranks of continent-based curators, that has not happened yet.
Njami's own recent effort, A Useful Dream: African Photography 1960-2010, shown in Brussels at BOZAR (2010), displays a number of artists familiar to the circuit of African photography exhibits mentioned above, as well as some photographers new to this lexicon. A Useful Dream continues Njami's project to display work from Africa, enabling a European- based audience to view these works, while reminding us that an inexhaustible number of photographs still wait to show us their visions of the continent's past and present, with its future soon to be duly recorded and imagined in ever more varied forms.
1. What I mean by "global conceptualism" is how prevalent the inclusion of a conceptual approach to art has become in international art exhibitions and on the global market. All new media are seen as conceptual, and traditional media such as painting or photography must now also have a conceptual aspect or risk seeming redundant.
2. See Snap Me One! Studiofotografen in Afrika, edited by Heike Behrend and Tobias Wendl (Munich: Münchner Stadtmuseum and Prestel, 1998). See also Behrend, "Photo Magic: Photographs in Practices of Healing and Harming in East Africa" Journal of Religion in Africa 33 no. 2 (2003): 129-145 ; "‘Feeling Global' The Likoni Ferry Photographers of Mombasa, Kenya" African Arts vol. 33 no. 3 (Autumn 2001): 70-77, 96 ; "Fragmented Visions: Photo Collages by Two Ugandan Photographers" Visual Anthropology vol. 14 no. 3 (2001): 301- 320 ; "Love à la Hollywood and Bombay: Kenyan Postcolonial Studio Photography" Paideuma vol. 44 (1998): 139-153. See also Behrend and Jean-François Werner, guest eds. "Photographies and Modernities in Africa", Visual Anthropology vol. 14 no. 3 (2001). See Tobias Wendl, "Entangled Traditions: Photography and the History of Media in Southern Ghana" in RES: Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics vol. 39 (Spring 2001): 78-100. See Christraud Geary, In and Out of Focus: Images from Central Africa, 1885-1960. Washington, D.C. & London: National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution & Philip Wilson, Publishers, 2002 ; Images from Bamum: German Colonial Photography at the Court of King Njoya. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988 ; "Early Images from Benin at the National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution." African Arts vol. 30 (Summer 1997): 44-53.
3. See Naomi Rosenblum, A World History of Photography (Abbeville Press, 1984); Michel Frizot, A New History of Photography (Konemann, 1999) and Mary Warner Marien, Photography: A Cultural History (Prentice Hall, 2002). For Batchen, see "Vernacular Photographies" in History of Photography vol. 24 no. 2 (Summer 2000); see also Batchen, Each Wild Idea: Photography Writing History (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), Forget Me Not: Photography and Remembrance (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006) and also Batchen, Yoshiaki Kai and Masashi Kohara, Suspending Time - life - photography - death (Nagaizumi-cho, Shizuoka: Izu Photo Museum, 2010).
4. See Sidney Kasfir, "African Art and Authenticity: A Text with a Shadow" in Reading the Contemporary: African Art from Theory to the Marketplace, eds. Olu Oguibe and Okwui Enwezor (London: Institute of International Visual Arts, 1999): 88-113 and a special issue of African Arts, vol. 9 no. 3 (Los Angeles, 1976) dedicated to the issue of authenticity.
5. Communicated in a personal interview, July 2010, Paris.
How does African photography circulate in the United States? In what institutions is it shown? How does its meaning change according to the context in which it is shown, whether as anthropological documents or as contemporary art? What are the debates about African photography among scholars, curators and critics in the United States? The essay by Allison Moore attempts to answer these questions.
To understand African photography in relation to American scholarship requires that we examine the question of how photographs by Africans are circulated and publicized within the US: i.e. who supports photography by exhibiting it, writing about it, or documenting its histories, thus allowing a wider audience to become aware of current developments.?It is immediately striking and well-known that African photographic production and its resultant scholarship and exhibitions mostly take place in different politico-geographies. By and large, the photography that is produced in Africa and the diaspora is exhibited and written about in the US and Europe, although Mali's Bamako Biennale and the dynamic exhibition scene in South Africa are two important exceptions to this general rule. The art photography produced by Africans in the diaspora tends to be privileged in Western art exhibitions over much photography made on the continent because diasporic artists tend to use concepts, aesthetics, and even media (access to and knowledge of digital technologies and complex software programs) that appeal to an international audience fascinated by the current mode of "global conceptualism." (1)In the US there have been relatively few exhibitions of African photography, however, to even prove this general point. In/sight: African Photographers, 1940 to the Present (1996) and Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (2006), both curated by Owkui Enwezor (In/sight with Clare Bell, Olu Oguibe, Danielle Tilkin, and Octavio Zaya) are the only two major exhibitions in the US that dealt solely with photography from Africa, aside from solo shows on major figures like Seydou Keïta, Malick Sidibé and Samuel Fosso. Zwelethu Mthethwa and David Goldblatt have also been celebrated individually (Goldblatt at the Jewish Museum in New York in summer 2010; Mthethwa's work has been purchased by the Museum of Modern Art in New York, Tracy Rose was shown at the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis) but South Africa's artists are positioned differently vis à vis the international art world because of the country's structure of gallery and museum networks. Indeed, perhaps exhibitions and accompanying catalogs on South Africa, like Tosha Grantham's Darkroom: Photography and New Media in South Africa, 1950 to the Present (Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 2009), can provide a model for future scholarship for photography across the continent, both in terms of limiting'African photography' to national content and in providing a range of genres accompanied by thoughtful and critical scholarship.
In contrast to Enwezor, who has been said to privilege elite-educated artists, some of whom live and work outside of Africa, academic scholars tend to privilege what would be called'visual culture' in the context of art historical discourse; i.e. photography produced as a commercial and social enterprise, rather than as a purely artistic one, by practitioners who live on the African continent. This seems to be true in German scholarship as well, seen in the work of Heike Behrend, Tobias Wendl, and Christraud Geary (who now lives and works in the US, but is of German heritage). (2)
The'visual culture' approach to scholarship tends to focus less on individuals and more on cultural histories of the medium, and the problem that some critics see is that it does not seem to differ significantly from anthropological scholarship, which relegates art to one among many forms of cultural production. Anthropology as a discipline is seen as especially suspect in regard to the study of Africa as historically much anthropology was uncritical of its hegemonic approaches and the oppressive uses to which such scholarship was put.
It is important in this context to recognize that the schism between understanding photography as'fine art' and as'visual culture' exists in Western scholarship on photography as well, and that it is not simply in relation to Africa that a more'sociological' or'cultural' approach should be taken. One approach to the history of photography, pioneered by scholars like Geoffrey Batchen and Elizabeth Edwards, takes all of photographic production within its scope (science, medical, vernacular, photojournalism, art, conceptual). In contrast, a more traditional art historical approach focuses on specifically art-oriented aesthetic developments in the history of photography, and seeks even to reduce photography's 19th century history to a discourse on aesthetic terms. Thus it might be useful for scholars and curators of African photography who disagree over methodological approaches to recognize that a similar schism exists within the history of Western photography, and that to turn an anthropological lens on Western photography is needed as well; one useful example is the sociological study by Pierre Bourdieu, Photography: A Middle-Brow Art (Stanford, 1996). (3)
African art scholarship in the US, like scholarship on African photography, also has traditionally dealt with the field of'visual culture', as the Western definition of museum-oriented art did not apply to the objects or rituals produced in African precolonial societies. The American preference for precolonial traditions and antiquated notions of'authenticity,' which were originally constructed by Western scholarship in the first place, held scholars back from investigating modern and contemporary art movements as well as photography, video and film. (4) Susan Vogel's exhibition at the Center for African Arts in New York, Africa Explores:20th Century African Art (1991) was the first major US show to garner a good deal of critical attention, although there had been several earlier precedents (Contemporary African Arts, Field Museum, 1974; Contemporary African Art, Howard University 1977; and Contemporary African Artists: Changing Tradition, Studio Museum in Harlem, 1990) that received less attention. Thus a'visual culture' approach to the history of photography in Africa dovetails with the methodological approaches of scholars trained both in precolonial African arts and of some photo historians.
But what of art photography, made for a mostly Western art market, that engages with specific concerns central to Western, international notions of art and aesthetics? While it is a relatively new genre in much of Africa, it is one that is quickly gaining interest, especially in urban areas where an education in photography is available. Is it possible, in scholarship or in exhibitions, to combine the aesthetic with the commercial, the artistic with the social? Eliding these boundaries is certainly what Enwezor suggested by labeling Keïta a modernist master, in the vein of the German portraitist August Sander. The truth is that photography as a field is far messier than such neat divisions would have us believe. Almost all'art' photographers have made commercial work, and many commercial photographers consider themselves skilled and creative in their fields.
Enwezor approached contemporary photography as a mélange of practices in Snap Judgments, including fashion photography and documentary (but not commercial) portraiture among works that were more artistically-oriented. At the same time, that show's mission was specifically to move away from the prevalence of interest in commercial studio portraiture in Africa, thereby exposing American audiences to other forms and genres of work. In the long run, while some portrait photographers on the continent will be recognized as brilliant practitioners, most will be appreciated for their role in their communities' histories, just as most commercial Western portraitists are not considered great artists. Bodies of medical and scientific and anthropological photographs will be discovered, as well as important documentary archives belonging to news agencies. The field must remain open to methodological approaches and to new discoveries, for there is much more scholarship needed, and so many gaps in our knowledge. The fields of visual culture and art should not cut themselves off from each other and become engaged in petty and divisive arguments. A debated field is a good one, but bitter criticisms are unnecessary and serve to scare scholars from engaging in the field for fear of being attacked. Enwezor's pioneering work has been absolutely essential to the field of African photography, and his influence cannot be under-acknowledged.
In the US, the path of academic scholarship on African photography has largely been pursued through African art and anthropology departments, rather than by historians of photography. New approaches to the history of photography, emphasizing cultural studies and viewing the whole of photography as'visual culture,' in contrast to the minority of photographs which are meant to constitute'art,' has meant that scholars in the history of photography come to African photographies with a wide disciplinary scope. African art scholars tend to be less appreciative of contemporary art while curators tend to be less interested in photographic production that does not fall into the aesthetic and conceptual standards dictated by the global art market. On the other hand, photography historians tend to lack the interdisciplinary cultural knowledge of Africa that should inform the analysis of any cultural production from a specific locale. Both African art and photography historians sometimes lack the knowledge of contemporary art strategies that may impede their understanding of art photography shown on the global market.
By mapping out the different positions in scholarship and curatorship in the US, as I have tried to do above, it becomes clear that all approaches are needed, and that they can serve somewhat different functions: to exhibit contemporary photography is important in creating a new field; scholarship is important in documenting histories and generating broader theories. But mapping out scholarly and curatorial positions also outlines some of the conflicts that have occurred among scholars and curators - conflicts that should not force positions to harden into oppositional stances that refuse debate and shut down dialogue, but that can instead revitalize definitions and question boundaries and productively investigate the very nature of the field, thereby opening up unlimited possibilities for future scholarship.
A Comparison of Important and Relevant Exhibitions
As a scholar who worked on Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (2006) at the International Center of Photography in New York, and who has researched and written on the Bamako Biennale in Mali, I will assert that the two exhibitions held very different outlooks and have had different functions. Snap Judgments was conceived by its curator, Okwui Enwezor, as a follow-up, decade-later response to In/Sight, African Photographers from 1940s to the Present (1996) at the Guggenheim Museum in New York. Unlike the Biennale, Snap Judgments was not a juried exhibition; it was a handpicked show with decisions on works made solely by Enwezor, on several short trips across Africa and Europe. Few of the artists were based in the US. Some were based in Europe, and some new photographers working on the African continent were exposed to the international market by Snap Judgments. Shown in the same city as In/Sight although at a different venue (it is worth noting that the ICP is making an important step by including African photography within the world history of photography), Snap Judgments was a singular exhibition, meant to provide a snap shot, as it were, of the state of contemporary photographic activity on the continent and in the diaspora.
As ICP's adjunct curator, Enwezor went on to curate Archive Fever: Uses of the Document in Contemporary Art two years later, thus showing his versatility in traversing subject matter as well as medium, and refusing to be stereotyped as solely a'contemporary African' curator (he also curated Documenta 11, the Seville Biennale and the Gwangju Biennale, as well as the 2nd Johannesburg Biennale). The impact of Snap Judgments, in which South African artists constituted a strong presence, is of course difficult to measure, especially in Africa, but one main effect was to give certain artists more international and American exposure. The artist who has benefitted the most from Snap Judgments, it seems, was Nontsikelelo'Lolo' Veleko, who subsequently was shown at Kyle Kauffman Gallery in New York in 2007, and has since been included in New York in Global Africa Project (2010-11) at the Museum of Modern Arts and Design. For the most part, the effect of Snap Judgments seemed to allow those artists who had established careers to become somewhat more established, and those who did not to gain a bit of recognition; but in general the show did not seem to dramatically affect artists' careers.
While Snap Judgments' effect may not have had a strong impact on most artists' careers as of yet (such things take time and it is up to the artist to'take advantage,' as it were, of being shown internationally), it must be stated that furthering artists' careers was not Enwezor's curatorial intent. We must move away from an artist-centric view to understand the goals of a curator, which can be ambivalent toward artists, since curators function today much as art critics did in the past - curators now determine a canon as well as show new work. For that reason, a curator cannot, and should not, be overly concerned with an artist's career. What Enwezor succeeded in doing was exposing a public to work from Africa that went far beyond the portrait tradition - established in the public perception by In/Sight (although there was a wider variety of work in that show than is usually recalled) - and thus creating a vaster exposure to African photography than previously had existed for an American public.
At the same time, many works in Snap Judgments utilized the very style of global conceptualism that is neither popular nor prevalent among most practitioners in Africa, and thus gives a different'snapshot' of the type of work that is being made from a broader, visual culture perspective. The truth is that'art photography' is a relatively new genre for most of the continent, but even before'art photography' was available in many places as a conceptual option, practitioners like Samuel Fosso of Democratic Republic of Congo and Youssouf Sogodogo of Mali, among others, made creative and inarguably artistic photographs on their own, despite lacking a'culture' of art photography to support their inspirations.
In contrast to Snap Judgments, which had the straightforward task of publicizing new developments on the continent and in the diaspora, the underlying mission of the Bamako Encounters or Bamako Biennale has been more politically and socially loaded, as well as more significant to Africa, because it is a biannual exhibition held on the continent. The Biennale was meant to foster, and to some extent has fostered, interest in and opportunity for making art photography across the continent. Founded by French photographers and supported by the French government, the Biennale went through a series of iterations while building a constituency of participants - artists, curators, scholars, gallerists. The 1998 Biennale seems to have had the most Malian agency: even the title, Ja Taa! "Prendre l'image", was in Bamanankan, Mali's lingua franca, as well as in French. After curator Simon Njami assumed stewardship as chief curator from 2001-2007, the Biennale became effective in terms of generating some global artworld interest. Njami has said that he remained chief curator because he wanted the event to gain enough publicity to remain a viable institution after he left. (5) While tensions usually exist in Biennales between the national and the international, obviously the fact that the French continue to fund the Biennale and produce its catalogs means that local tensions are stronger than elsewhere. At the moment when Malians are asserting their desire to have control over aspects of the Biennale, and to use this exhibition as a force for change, CulturesFrance (now l'Institut français) has turned its interest toward founding a contemporary biennale in Benin. The first edition, Regard Bénin, occurred in the summer of 2010. But certainly the Bamako Biennale is gaining more exposure as a significant photography event, and hopefully will continue to be an impressive gathering for decades to come.
Locally, what has happened in Bamako as a result of the Biennale has been spectacular. Photography schools have sprouted, and a special school for women's photography [Promo-femme : Centre de formation en audiovisuel pour les jeunes filles ] now unfortunately closed due to lack of government support, was for the duration of its existence hugely influential in allowing women to enter the field of photography, a formerly all-male profession. When I interviewed photographers in Mali in the summer of 2006, there were a few complaints about how the French handle the Biennale but certainly no one wished that it had not been invented, or thought it should end. It gave Malian photographers who were well-versed in portraiture and reportage the opportunity to explore self-expression and creative photography in ways previously unavailable. While Njami was hopeful that curators for the Biennale could be found from among the ranks of continent-based curators, that has not happened yet.
Njami's own recent effort, A Useful Dream: African Photography 1960-2010, shown in Brussels at BOZAR (2010), displays a number of artists familiar to the circuit of African photography exhibits mentioned above, as well as some photographers new to this lexicon. A Useful Dream continues Njami's project to display work from Africa, enabling a European- based audience to view these works, while reminding us that an inexhaustible number of photographs still wait to show us their visions of the continent's past and present, with its future soon to be duly recorded and imagined in ever more varied forms.
1. What I mean by "global conceptualism" is how prevalent the inclusion of a conceptual approach to art has become in international art exhibitions and on the global market. All new media are seen as conceptual, and traditional media such as painting or photography must now also have a conceptual aspect or risk seeming redundant.
2. See Snap Me One! Studiofotografen in Afrika, edited by Heike Behrend and Tobias Wendl (Munich: Münchner Stadtmuseum and Prestel, 1998). See also Behrend, "Photo Magic: Photographs in Practices of Healing and Harming in East Africa" Journal of Religion in Africa 33 no. 2 (2003): 129-145 ; "‘Feeling Global' The Likoni Ferry Photographers of Mombasa, Kenya" African Arts vol. 33 no. 3 (Autumn 2001): 70-77, 96 ; "Fragmented Visions: Photo Collages by Two Ugandan Photographers" Visual Anthropology vol. 14 no. 3 (2001): 301- 320 ; "Love à la Hollywood and Bombay: Kenyan Postcolonial Studio Photography" Paideuma vol. 44 (1998): 139-153. See also Behrend and Jean-François Werner, guest eds. "Photographies and Modernities in Africa", Visual Anthropology vol. 14 no. 3 (2001). See Tobias Wendl, "Entangled Traditions: Photography and the History of Media in Southern Ghana" in RES: Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics vol. 39 (Spring 2001): 78-100. See Christraud Geary, In and Out of Focus: Images from Central Africa, 1885-1960. Washington, D.C. & London: National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution & Philip Wilson, Publishers, 2002 ; Images from Bamum: German Colonial Photography at the Court of King Njoya. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988 ; "Early Images from Benin at the National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution." African Arts vol. 30 (Summer 1997): 44-53.
3. See Naomi Rosenblum, A World History of Photography (Abbeville Press, 1984); Michel Frizot, A New History of Photography (Konemann, 1999) and Mary Warner Marien, Photography: A Cultural History (Prentice Hall, 2002). For Batchen, see "Vernacular Photographies" in History of Photography vol. 24 no. 2 (Summer 2000); see also Batchen, Each Wild Idea: Photography Writing History (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), Forget Me Not: Photography and Remembrance (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006) and also Batchen, Yoshiaki Kai and Masashi Kohara, Suspending Time - life - photography - death (Nagaizumi-cho, Shizuoka: Izu Photo Museum, 2010).
4. See Sidney Kasfir, "African Art and Authenticity: A Text with a Shadow" in Reading the Contemporary: African Art from Theory to the Marketplace, eds. Olu Oguibe and Okwui Enwezor (London: Institute of International Visual Arts, 1999): 88-113 and a special issue of African Arts, vol. 9 no. 3 (Los Angeles, 1976) dedicated to the issue of authenticity.
5. Communicated in a personal interview, July 2010, Paris.
How does African photography circulate in the United States? In what institutions is it shown? How does its meaning change according to the context in which it is shown, whether as anthropological documents or as contemporary art? What are the debates about African photography among scholars, curators and critics in the United States? The essay by Allison Moore attempts to answer these questions.
To understand African photography in relation to American scholarship requires that we examine the question of how photographs by Africans are circulated and publicized within the US: i.e. who supports photography by exhibiting it, writing about it, or documenting its histories, thus allowing a wider audience to become aware of current developments.?It is immediately striking and well-known that African photographic production and its resultant scholarship and exhibitions mostly take place in different politico-geographies. By and large, the photography that is produced in Africa and the diaspora is exhibited and written about in the US and Europe, although Mali's Bamako Biennale and the dynamic exhibition scene in South Africa are two important exceptions to this general rule. The art photography produced by Africans in the diaspora tends to be privileged in Western art exhibitions over much photography made on the continent because diasporic artists tend to use concepts, aesthetics, and even media (access to and knowledge of digital technologies and complex software programs) that appeal to an international audience fascinated by the current mode of "global conceptualism." (1)In the US there have been relatively few exhibitions of African photography, however, to even prove this general point. In/sight: African Photographers, 1940 to the Present (1996) and Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (2006), both curated by Owkui Enwezor (In/sight with Clare Bell, Olu Oguibe, Danielle Tilkin, and Octavio Zaya) are the only two major exhibitions in the US that dealt solely with photography from Africa, aside from solo shows on major figures like Seydou Keïta, Malick Sidibé and Samuel Fosso. Zwelethu Mthethwa and David Goldblatt have also been celebrated individually (Goldblatt at the Jewish Museum in New York in summer 2010; Mthethwa's work has been purchased by the Museum of Modern Art in New York, Tracy Rose was shown at the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis) but South Africa's artists are positioned differently vis à vis the international art world because of the country's structure of gallery and museum networks. Indeed, perhaps exhibitions and accompanying catalogs on South Africa, like Tosha Grantham's Darkroom: Photography and New Media in South Africa, 1950 to the Present (Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 2009), can provide a model for future scholarship for photography across the continent, both in terms of limiting'African photography' to national content and in providing a range of genres accompanied by thoughtful and critical scholarship.
In contrast to Enwezor, who has been said to privilege elite-educated artists, some of whom live and work outside of Africa, academic scholars tend to privilege what would be called'visual culture' in the context of art historical discourse; i.e. photography produced as a commercial and social enterprise, rather than as a purely artistic one, by practitioners who live on the African continent. This seems to be true in German scholarship as well, seen in the work of Heike Behrend, Tobias Wendl, and Christraud Geary (who now lives and works in the US, but is of German heritage). (2)
The'visual culture' approach to scholarship tends to focus less on individuals and more on cultural histories of the medium, and the problem that some critics see is that it does not seem to differ significantly from anthropological scholarship, which relegates art to one among many forms of cultural production. Anthropology as a discipline is seen as especially suspect in regard to the study of Africa as historically much anthropology was uncritical of its hegemonic approaches and the oppressive uses to which such scholarship was put.
It is important in this context to recognize that the schism between understanding photography as'fine art' and as'visual culture' exists in Western scholarship on photography as well, and that it is not simply in relation to Africa that a more'sociological' or'cultural' approach should be taken. One approach to the history of photography, pioneered by scholars like Geoffrey Batchen and Elizabeth Edwards, takes all of photographic production within its scope (science, medical, vernacular, photojournalism, art, conceptual). In contrast, a more traditional art historical approach focuses on specifically art-oriented aesthetic developments in the history of photography, and seeks even to reduce photography's 19th century history to a discourse on aesthetic terms. Thus it might be useful for scholars and curators of African photography who disagree over methodological approaches to recognize that a similar schism exists within the history of Western photography, and that to turn an anthropological lens on Western photography is needed as well; one useful example is the sociological study by Pierre Bourdieu, Photography: A Middle-Brow Art (Stanford, 1996). (3)
African art scholarship in the US, like scholarship on African photography, also has traditionally dealt with the field of'visual culture', as the Western definition of museum-oriented art did not apply to the objects or rituals produced in African precolonial societies. The American preference for precolonial traditions and antiquated notions of'authenticity,' which were originally constructed by Western scholarship in the first place, held scholars back from investigating modern and contemporary art movements as well as photography, video and film. (4) Susan Vogel's exhibition at the Center for African Arts in New York, Africa Explores:20th Century African Art (1991) was the first major US show to garner a good deal of critical attention, although there had been several earlier precedents (Contemporary African Arts, Field Museum, 1974; Contemporary African Art, Howard University 1977; and Contemporary African Artists: Changing Tradition, Studio Museum in Harlem, 1990) that received less attention. Thus a'visual culture' approach to the history of photography in Africa dovetails with the methodological approaches of scholars trained both in precolonial African arts and of some photo historians.
But what of art photography, made for a mostly Western art market, that engages with specific concerns central to Western, international notions of art and aesthetics? While it is a relatively new genre in much of Africa, it is one that is quickly gaining interest, especially in urban areas where an education in photography is available. Is it possible, in scholarship or in exhibitions, to combine the aesthetic with the commercial, the artistic with the social? Eliding these boundaries is certainly what Enwezor suggested by labeling Keïta a modernist master, in the vein of the German portraitist August Sander. The truth is that photography as a field is far messier than such neat divisions would have us believe. Almost all'art' photographers have made commercial work, and many commercial photographers consider themselves skilled and creative in their fields.
Enwezor approached contemporary photography as a mélange of practices in Snap Judgments, including fashion photography and documentary (but not commercial) portraiture among works that were more artistically-oriented. At the same time, that show's mission was specifically to move away from the prevalence of interest in commercial studio portraiture in Africa, thereby exposing American audiences to other forms and genres of work. In the long run, while some portrait photographers on the continent will be recognized as brilliant practitioners, most will be appreciated for their role in their communities' histories, just as most commercial Western portraitists are not considered great artists. Bodies of medical and scientific and anthropological photographs will be discovered, as well as important documentary archives belonging to news agencies. The field must remain open to methodological approaches and to new discoveries, for there is much more scholarship needed, and so many gaps in our knowledge. The fields of visual culture and art should not cut themselves off from each other and become engaged in petty and divisive arguments. A debated field is a good one, but bitter criticisms are unnecessary and serve to scare scholars from engaging in the field for fear of being attacked. Enwezor's pioneering work has been absolutely essential to the field of African photography, and his influence cannot be under-acknowledged.
In the US, the path of academic scholarship on African photography has largely been pursued through African art and anthropology departments, rather than by historians of photography. New approaches to the history of photography, emphasizing cultural studies and viewing the whole of photography as'visual culture,' in contrast to the minority of photographs which are meant to constitute'art,' has meant that scholars in the history of photography come to African photographies with a wide disciplinary scope. African art scholars tend to be less appreciative of contemporary art while curators tend to be less interested in photographic production that does not fall into the aesthetic and conceptual standards dictated by the global art market. On the other hand, photography historians tend to lack the interdisciplinary cultural knowledge of Africa that should inform the analysis of any cultural production from a specific locale. Both African art and photography historians sometimes lack the knowledge of contemporary art strategies that may impede their understanding of art photography shown on the global market.
By mapping out the different positions in scholarship and curatorship in the US, as I have tried to do above, it becomes clear that all approaches are needed, and that they can serve somewhat different functions: to exhibit contemporary photography is important in creating a new field; scholarship is important in documenting histories and generating broader theories. But mapping out scholarly and curatorial positions also outlines some of the conflicts that have occurred among scholars and curators - conflicts that should not force positions to harden into oppositional stances that refuse debate and shut down dialogue, but that can instead revitalize definitions and question boundaries and productively investigate the very nature of the field, thereby opening up unlimited possibilities for future scholarship.
A Comparison of Important and Relevant Exhibitions
As a scholar who worked on Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (2006) at the International Center of Photography in New York, and who has researched and written on the Bamako Biennale in Mali, I will assert that the two exhibitions held very different outlooks and have had different functions. Snap Judgments was conceived by its curator, Okwui Enwezor, as a follow-up, decade-later response to In/Sight, African Photographers from 1940s to the Present (1996) at the Guggenheim Museum in New York. Unlike the Biennale, Snap Judgments was not a juried exhibition; it was a handpicked show with decisions on works made solely by Enwezor, on several short trips across Africa and Europe. Few of the artists were based in the US. Some were based in Europe, and some new photographers working on the African continent were exposed to the international market by Snap Judgments. Shown in the same city as In/Sight although at a different venue (it is worth noting that the ICP is making an important step by including African photography within the world history of photography), Snap Judgments was a singular exhibition, meant to provide a snap shot, as it were, of the state of contemporary photographic activity on the continent and in the diaspora.
As ICP's adjunct curator, Enwezor went on to curate Archive Fever: Uses of the Document in Contemporary Art two years later, thus showing his versatility in traversing subject matter as well as medium, and refusing to be stereotyped as solely a'contemporary African' curator (he also curated Documenta 11, the Seville Biennale and the Gwangju Biennale, as well as the 2nd Johannesburg Biennale). The impact of Snap Judgments, in which South African artists constituted a strong presence, is of course difficult to measure, especially in Africa, but one main effect was to give certain artists more international and American exposure. The artist who has benefitted the most from Snap Judgments, it seems, was Nontsikelelo'Lolo' Veleko, who subsequently was shown at Kyle Kauffman Gallery in New York in 2007, and has since been included in New York in Global Africa Project (2010-11) at the Museum of Modern Arts and Design. For the most part, the effect of Snap Judgments seemed to allow those artists who had established careers to become somewhat more established, and those who did not to gain a bit of recognition; but in general the show did not seem to dramatically affect artists' careers.
While Snap Judgments' effect may not have had a strong impact on most artists' careers as of yet (such things take time and it is up to the artist to'take advantage,' as it were, of being shown internationally), it must be stated that furthering artists' careers was not Enwezor's curatorial intent. We must move away from an artist-centric view to understand the goals of a curator, which can be ambivalent toward artists, since curators function today much as art critics did in the past - curators now determine a canon as well as show new work. For that reason, a curator cannot, and should not, be overly concerned with an artist's career. What Enwezor succeeded in doing was exposing a public to work from Africa that went far beyond the portrait tradition - established in the public perception by In/Sight (although there was a wider variety of work in that show than is usually recalled) - and thus creating a vaster exposure to African photography than previously had existed for an American public.
At the same time, many works in Snap Judgments utilized the very style of global conceptualism that is neither popular nor prevalent among most practitioners in Africa, and thus gives a different'snapshot' of the type of work that is being made from a broader, visual culture perspective. The truth is that'art photography' is a relatively new genre for most of the continent, but even before'art photography' was available in many places as a conceptual option, practitioners like Samuel Fosso of Democratic Republic of Congo and Youssouf Sogodogo of Mali, among others, made creative and inarguably artistic photographs on their own, despite lacking a'culture' of art photography to support their inspirations.
In contrast to Snap Judgments, which had the straightforward task of publicizing new developments on the continent and in the diaspora, the underlying mission of the Bamako Encounters or Bamako Biennale has been more politically and socially loaded, as well as more significant to Africa, because it is a biannual exhibition held on the continent. The Biennale was meant to foster, and to some extent has fostered, interest in and opportunity for making art photography across the continent. Founded by French photographers and supported by the French government, the Biennale went through a series of iterations while building a constituency of participants - artists, curators, scholars, gallerists. The 1998 Biennale seems to have had the most Malian agency: even the title, Ja Taa! "Prendre l'image", was in Bamanankan, Mali's lingua franca, as well as in French. After curator Simon Njami assumed stewardship as chief curator from 2001-2007, the Biennale became effective in terms of generating some global artworld interest. Njami has said that he remained chief curator because he wanted the event to gain enough publicity to remain a viable institution after he left. (5) While tensions usually exist in Biennales between the national and the international, obviously the fact that the French continue to fund the Biennale and produce its catalogs means that local tensions are stronger than elsewhere. At the moment when Malians are asserting their desire to have control over aspects of the Biennale, and to use this exhibition as a force for change, CulturesFrance (now l'Institut français) has turned its interest toward founding a contemporary biennale in Benin. The first edition, Regard Bénin, occurred in the summer of 2010. But certainly the Bamako Biennale is gaining more exposure as a significant photography event, and hopefully will continue to be an impressive gathering for decades to come.
Locally, what has happened in Bamako as a result of the Biennale has been spectacular. Photography schools have sprouted, and a special school for women's photography [Promo-femme : Centre de formation en audiovisuel pour les jeunes filles ] now unfortunately closed due to lack of government support, was for the duration of its existence hugely influential in allowing women to enter the field of photography, a formerly all-male profession. When I interviewed photographers in Mali in the summer of 2006, there were a few complaints about how the French handle the Biennale but certainly no one wished that it had not been invented, or thought it should end. It gave Malian photographers who were well-versed in portraiture and reportage the opportunity to explore self-expression and creative photography in ways previously unavailable. While Njami was hopeful that curators for the Biennale could be found from among the ranks of continent-based curators, that has not happened yet.
Njami's own recent effort, A Useful Dream: African Photography 1960-2010, shown in Brussels at BOZAR (2010), displays a number of artists familiar to the circuit of African photography exhibits mentioned above, as well as some photographers new to this lexicon. A Useful Dream continues Njami's project to display work from Africa, enabling a European- based audience to view these works, while reminding us that an inexhaustible number of photographs still wait to show us their visions of the continent's past and present, with its future soon to be duly recorded and imagined in ever more varied forms.
1. What I mean by "global conceptualism" is how prevalent the inclusion of a conceptual approach to art has become in international art exhibitions and on the global market. All new media are seen as conceptual, and traditional media such as painting or photography must now also have a conceptual aspect or risk seeming redundant.
2. See Snap Me One! Studiofotografen in Afrika, edited by Heike Behrend and Tobias Wendl (Munich: Münchner Stadtmuseum and Prestel, 1998). See also Behrend, "Photo Magic: Photographs in Practices of Healing and Harming in East Africa" Journal of Religion in Africa 33 no. 2 (2003): 129-145 ; "‘Feeling Global' The Likoni Ferry Photographers of Mombasa, Kenya" African Arts vol. 33 no. 3 (Autumn 2001): 70-77, 96 ; "Fragmented Visions: Photo Collages by Two Ugandan Photographers" Visual Anthropology vol. 14 no. 3 (2001): 301- 320 ; "Love à la Hollywood and Bombay: Kenyan Postcolonial Studio Photography" Paideuma vol. 44 (1998): 139-153. See also Behrend and Jean-François Werner, guest eds. "Photographies and Modernities in Africa", Visual Anthropology vol. 14 no. 3 (2001). See Tobias Wendl, "Entangled Traditions: Photography and the History of Media in Southern Ghana" in RES: Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics vol. 39 (Spring 2001): 78-100. See Christraud Geary, In and Out of Focus: Images from Central Africa, 1885-1960. Washington, D.C. & London: National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution & Philip Wilson, Publishers, 2002 ; Images from Bamum: German Colonial Photography at the Court of King Njoya. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988 ; "Early Images from Benin at the National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution." African Arts vol. 30 (Summer 1997): 44-53.
3. See Naomi Rosenblum, A World History of Photography (Abbeville Press, 1984); Michel Frizot, A New History of Photography (Konemann, 1999) and Mary Warner Marien, Photography: A Cultural History (Prentice Hall, 2002). For Batchen, see "Vernacular Photographies" in History of Photography vol. 24 no. 2 (Summer 2000); see also Batchen, Each Wild Idea: Photography Writing History (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), Forget Me Not: Photography and Remembrance (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006) and also Batchen, Yoshiaki Kai and Masashi Kohara, Suspending Time - life - photography - death (Nagaizumi-cho, Shizuoka: Izu Photo Museum, 2010).
4. See Sidney Kasfir, "African Art and Authenticity: A Text with a Shadow" in Reading the Contemporary: African Art from Theory to the Marketplace, eds. Olu Oguibe and Okwui Enwezor (London: Institute of International Visual Arts, 1999): 88-113 and a special issue of African Arts, vol. 9 no. 3 (Los Angeles, 1976) dedicated to the issue of authenticity.
5. Communicated in a personal interview, July 2010, Paris.
How does African photography circulate in the United States? In what institutions is it shown? How does its meaning change according to the context in which it is shown, whether as anthropological documents or as contemporary art? What are the debates about African photography among scholars, curators and critics in the United States? The essay by Allison Moore attempts to answer these questions.
To understand African photography in relation to American scholarship requires that we examine the question of how photographs by Africans are circulated and publicized within the US: i.e. who supports photography by exhibiting it, writing about it, or documenting its histories, thus allowing a wider audience to become aware of current developments.?It is immediately striking and well-known that African photographic production and its resultant scholarship and exhibitions mostly take place in different politico-geographies. By and large, the photography that is produced in Africa and the diaspora is exhibited and written about in the US and Europe, although Mali's Bamako Biennale and the dynamic exhibition scene in South Africa are two important exceptions to this general rule. The art photography produced by Africans in the diaspora tends to be privileged in Western art exhibitions over much photography made on the continent because diasporic artists tend to use concepts, aesthetics, and even media (access to and knowledge of digital technologies and complex software programs) that appeal to an international audience fascinated by the current mode of "global conceptualism." (1)In the US there have been relatively few exhibitions of African photography, however, to even prove this general point. In/sight: African Photographers, 1940 to the Present (1996) and Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (2006), both curated by Owkui Enwezor (In/sight with Clare Bell, Olu Oguibe, Danielle Tilkin, and Octavio Zaya) are the only two major exhibitions in the US that dealt solely with photography from Africa, aside from solo shows on major figures like Seydou Keïta, Malick Sidibé and Samuel Fosso. Zwelethu Mthethwa and David Goldblatt have also been celebrated individually (Goldblatt at the Jewish Museum in New York in summer 2010; Mthethwa's work has been purchased by the Museum of Modern Art in New York, Tracy Rose was shown at the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis) but South Africa's artists are positioned differently vis à vis the international art world because of the country's structure of gallery and museum networks. Indeed, perhaps exhibitions and accompanying catalogs on South Africa, like Tosha Grantham's Darkroom: Photography and New Media in South Africa, 1950 to the Present (Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 2009), can provide a model for future scholarship for photography across the continent, both in terms of limiting'African photography' to national content and in providing a range of genres accompanied by thoughtful and critical scholarship.
In contrast to Enwezor, who has been said to privilege elite-educated artists, some of whom live and work outside of Africa, academic scholars tend to privilege what would be called'visual culture' in the context of art historical discourse; i.e. photography produced as a commercial and social enterprise, rather than as a purely artistic one, by practitioners who live on the African continent. This seems to be true in German scholarship as well, seen in the work of Heike Behrend, Tobias Wendl, and Christraud Geary (who now lives and works in the US, but is of German heritage). (2)
The'visual culture' approach to scholarship tends to focus less on individuals and more on cultural histories of the medium, and the problem that some critics see is that it does not seem to differ significantly from anthropological scholarship, which relegates art to one among many forms of cultural production. Anthropology as a discipline is seen as especially suspect in regard to the study of Africa as historically much anthropology was uncritical of its hegemonic approaches and the oppressive uses to which such scholarship was put.
It is important in this context to recognize that the schism between understanding photography as'fine art' and as'visual culture' exists in Western scholarship on photography as well, and that it is not simply in relation to Africa that a more'sociological' or'cultural' approach should be taken. One approach to the history of photography, pioneered by scholars like Geoffrey Batchen and Elizabeth Edwards, takes all of photographic production within its scope (science, medical, vernacular, photojournalism, art, conceptual). In contrast, a more traditional art historical approach focuses on specifically art-oriented aesthetic developments in the history of photography, and seeks even to reduce photography's 19th century history to a discourse on aesthetic terms. Thus it might be useful for scholars and curators of African photography who disagree over methodological approaches to recognize that a similar schism exists within the history of Western photography, and that to turn an anthropological lens on Western photography is needed as well; one useful example is the sociological study by Pierre Bourdieu, Photography: A Middle-Brow Art (Stanford, 1996). (3)
African art scholarship in the US, like scholarship on African photography, also has traditionally dealt with the field of'visual culture', as the Western definition of museum-oriented art did not apply to the objects or rituals produced in African precolonial societies. The American preference for precolonial traditions and antiquated notions of'authenticity,' which were originally constructed by Western scholarship in the first place, held scholars back from investigating modern and contemporary art movements as well as photography, video and film. (4) Susan Vogel's exhibition at the Center for African Arts in New York, Africa Explores:20th Century African Art (1991) was the first major US show to garner a good deal of critical attention, although there had been several earlier precedents (Contemporary African Arts, Field Museum, 1974; Contemporary African Art, Howard University 1977; and Contemporary African Artists: Changing Tradition, Studio Museum in Harlem, 1990) that received less attention. Thus a'visual culture' approach to the history of photography in Africa dovetails with the methodological approaches of scholars trained both in precolonial African arts and of some photo historians.
But what of art photography, made for a mostly Western art market, that engages with specific concerns central to Western, international notions of art and aesthetics? While it is a relatively new genre in much of Africa, it is one that is quickly gaining interest, especially in urban areas where an education in photography is available. Is it possible, in scholarship or in exhibitions, to combine the aesthetic with the commercial, the artistic with the social? Eliding these boundaries is certainly what Enwezor suggested by labeling Keïta a modernist master, in the vein of the German portraitist August Sander. The truth is that photography as a field is far messier than such neat divisions would have us believe. Almost all'art' photographers have made commercial work, and many commercial photographers consider themselves skilled and creative in their fields.
Enwezor approached contemporary photography as a mélange of practices in Snap Judgments, including fashion photography and documentary (but not commercial) portraiture among works that were more artistically-oriented. At the same time, that show's mission was specifically to move away from the prevalence of interest in commercial studio portraiture in Africa, thereby exposing American audiences to other forms and genres of work. In the long run, while some portrait photographers on the continent will be recognized as brilliant practitioners, most will be appreciated for their role in their communities' histories, just as most commercial Western portraitists are not considered great artists. Bodies of medical and scientific and anthropological photographs will be discovered, as well as important documentary archives belonging to news agencies. The field must remain open to methodological approaches and to new discoveries, for there is much more scholarship needed, and so many gaps in our knowledge. The fields of visual culture and art should not cut themselves off from each other and become engaged in petty and divisive arguments. A debated field is a good one, but bitter criticisms are unnecessary and serve to scare scholars from engaging in the field for fear of being attacked. Enwezor's pioneering work has been absolutely essential to the field of African photography, and his influence cannot be under-acknowledged.
In the US, the path of academic scholarship on African photography has largely been pursued through African art and anthropology departments, rather than by historians of photography. New approaches to the history of photography, emphasizing cultural studies and viewing the whole of photography as'visual culture,' in contrast to the minority of photographs which are meant to constitute'art,' has meant that scholars in the history of photography come to African photographies with a wide disciplinary scope. African art scholars tend to be less appreciative of contemporary art while curators tend to be less interested in photographic production that does not fall into the aesthetic and conceptual standards dictated by the global art market. On the other hand, photography historians tend to lack the interdisciplinary cultural knowledge of Africa that should inform the analysis of any cultural production from a specific locale. Both African art and photography historians sometimes lack the knowledge of contemporary art strategies that may impede their understanding of art photography shown on the global market.
By mapping out the different positions in scholarship and curatorship in the US, as I have tried to do above, it becomes clear that all approaches are needed, and that they can serve somewhat different functions: to exhibit contemporary photography is important in creating a new field; scholarship is important in documenting histories and generating broader theories. But mapping out scholarly and curatorial positions also outlines some of the conflicts that have occurred among scholars and curators - conflicts that should not force positions to harden into oppositional stances that refuse debate and shut down dialogue, but that can instead revitalize definitions and question boundaries and productively investigate the very nature of the field, thereby opening up unlimited possibilities for future scholarship.
A Comparison of Important and Relevant Exhibitions
As a scholar who worked on Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (2006) at the International Center of Photography in New York, and who has researched and written on the Bamako Biennale in Mali, I will assert that the two exhibitions held very different outlooks and have had different functions. Snap Judgments was conceived by its curator, Okwui Enwezor, as a follow-up, decade-later response to In/Sight, African Photographers from 1940s to the Present (1996) at the Guggenheim Museum in New York. Unlike the Biennale, Snap Judgments was not a juried exhibition; it was a handpicked show with decisions on works made solely by Enwezor, on several short trips across Africa and Europe. Few of the artists were based in the US. Some were based in Europe, and some new photographers working on the African continent were exposed to the international market by Snap Judgments. Shown in the same city as In/Sight although at a different venue (it is worth noting that the ICP is making an important step by including African photography within the world history of photography), Snap Judgments was a singular exhibition, meant to provide a snap shot, as it were, of the state of contemporary photographic activity on the continent and in the diaspora.
As ICP's adjunct curator, Enwezor went on to curate Archive Fever: Uses of the Document in Contemporary Art two years later, thus showing his versatility in traversing subject matter as well as medium, and refusing to be stereotyped as solely a'contemporary African' curator (he also curated Documenta 11, the Seville Biennale and the Gwangju Biennale, as well as the 2nd Johannesburg Biennale). The impact of Snap Judgments, in which South African artists constituted a strong presence, is of course difficult to measure, especially in Africa, but one main effect was to give certain artists more international and American exposure. The artist who has benefitted the most from Snap Judgments, it seems, was Nontsikelelo'Lolo' Veleko, who subsequently was shown at Kyle Kauffman Gallery in New York in 2007, and has since been included in New York in Global Africa Project (2010-11) at the Museum of Modern Arts and Design. For the most part, the effect of Snap Judgments seemed to allow those artists who had established careers to become somewhat more established, and those who did not to gain a bit of recognition; but in general the show did not seem to dramatically affect artists' careers.
While Snap Judgments' effect may not have had a strong impact on most artists' careers as of yet (such things take time and it is up to the artist to'take advantage,' as it were, of being shown internationally), it must be stated that furthering artists' careers was not Enwezor's curatorial intent. We must move away from an artist-centric view to understand the goals of a curator, which can be ambivalent toward artists, since curators function today much as art critics did in the past - curators now determine a canon as well as show new work. For that reason, a curator cannot, and should not, be overly concerned with an artist's career. What Enwezor succeeded in doing was exposing a public to work from Africa that went far beyond the portrait tradition - established in the public perception by In/Sight (although there was a wider variety of work in that show than is usually recalled) - and thus creating a vaster exposure to African photography than previously had existed for an American public.
At the same time, many works in Snap Judgments utilized the very style of global conceptualism that is neither popular nor prevalent among most practitioners in Africa, and thus gives a different'snapshot' of the type of work that is being made from a broader, visual culture perspective. The truth is that'art photography' is a relatively new genre for most of the continent, but even before'art photography' was available in many places as a conceptual option, practitioners like Samuel Fosso of Democratic Republic of Congo and Youssouf Sogodogo of Mali, among others, made creative and inarguably artistic photographs on their own, despite lacking a'culture' of art photography to support their inspirations.
In contrast to Snap Judgments, which had the straightforward task of publicizing new developments on the continent and in the diaspora, the underlying mission of the Bamako Encounters or Bamako Biennale has been more politically and socially loaded, as well as more significant to Africa, because it is a biannual exhibition held on the continent. The Biennale was meant to foster, and to some extent has fostered, interest in and opportunity for making art photography across the continent. Founded by French photographers and supported by the French government, the Biennale went through a series of iterations while building a constituency of participants - artists, curators, scholars, gallerists. The 1998 Biennale seems to have had the most Malian agency: even the title, Ja Taa! "Prendre l'image", was in Bamanankan, Mali's lingua franca, as well as in French. After curator Simon Njami assumed stewardship as chief curator from 2001-2007, the Biennale became effective in terms of generating some global artworld interest. Njami has said that he remained chief curator because he wanted the event to gain enough publicity to remain a viable institution after he left. (5) While tensions usually exist in Biennales between the national and the international, obviously the fact that the French continue to fund the Biennale and produce its catalogs means that local tensions are stronger than elsewhere. At the moment when Malians are asserting their desire to have control over aspects of the Biennale, and to use this exhibition as a force for change, CulturesFrance (now l'Institut français) has turned its interest toward founding a contemporary biennale in Benin. The first edition, Regard Bénin, occurred in the summer of 2010. But certainly the Bamako Biennale is gaining more exposure as a significant photography event, and hopefully will continue to be an impressive gathering for decades to come.
Locally, what has happened in Bamako as a result of the Biennale has been spectacular. Photography schools have sprouted, and a special school for women's photography [Promo-femme : Centre de formation en audiovisuel pour les jeunes filles ] now unfortunately closed due to lack of government support, was for the duration of its existence hugely influential in allowing women to enter the field of photography, a formerly all-male profession. When I interviewed photographers in Mali in the summer of 2006, there were a few complaints about how the French handle the Biennale but certainly no one wished that it had not been invented, or thought it should end. It gave Malian photographers who were well-versed in portraiture and reportage the opportunity to explore self-expression and creative photography in ways previously unavailable. While Njami was hopeful that curators for the Biennale could be found from among the ranks of continent-based curators, that has not happened yet.
Njami's own recent effort, A Useful Dream: African Photography 1960-2010, shown in Brussels at BOZAR (2010), displays a number of artists familiar to the circuit of African photography exhibits mentioned above, as well as some photographers new to this lexicon. A Useful Dream continues Njami's project to display work from Africa, enabling a European- based audience to view these works, while reminding us that an inexhaustible number of photographs still wait to show us their visions of the continent's past and present, with its future soon to be duly recorded and imagined in ever more varied forms.
1. What I mean by "global conceptualism" is how prevalent the inclusion of a conceptual approach to art has become in international art exhibitions and on the global market. All new media are seen as conceptual, and traditional media such as painting or photography must now also have a conceptual aspect or risk seeming redundant.
2. See Snap Me One! Studiofotografen in Afrika, edited by Heike Behrend and Tobias Wendl (Munich: Münchner Stadtmuseum and Prestel, 1998). See also Behrend, "Photo Magic: Photographs in Practices of Healing and Harming in East Africa" Journal of Religion in Africa 33 no. 2 (2003): 129-145 ; "‘Feeling Global' The Likoni Ferry Photographers of Mombasa, Kenya" African Arts vol. 33 no. 3 (Autumn 2001): 70-77, 96 ; "Fragmented Visions: Photo Collages by Two Ugandan Photographers" Visual Anthropology vol. 14 no. 3 (2001): 301- 320 ; "Love à la Hollywood and Bombay: Kenyan Postcolonial Studio Photography" Paideuma vol. 44 (1998): 139-153. See also Behrend and Jean-François Werner, guest eds. "Photographies and Modernities in Africa", Visual Anthropology vol. 14 no. 3 (2001). See Tobias Wendl, "Entangled Traditions: Photography and the History of Media in Southern Ghana" in RES: Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics vol. 39 (Spring 2001): 78-100. See Christraud Geary, In and Out of Focus: Images from Central Africa, 1885-1960. Washington, D.C. & London: National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution & Philip Wilson, Publishers, 2002 ; Images from Bamum: German Colonial Photography at the Court of King Njoya. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988 ; "Early Images from Benin at the National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution." African Arts vol. 30 (Summer 1997): 44-53.
3. See Naomi Rosenblum, A World History of Photography (Abbeville Press, 1984); Michel Frizot, A New History of Photography (Konemann, 1999) and Mary Warner Marien, Photography: A Cultural History (Prentice Hall, 2002). For Batchen, see "Vernacular Photographies" in History of Photography vol. 24 no. 2 (Summer 2000); see also Batchen, Each Wild Idea: Photography Writing History (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), Forget Me Not: Photography and Remembrance (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006) and also Batchen, Yoshiaki Kai and Masashi Kohara, Suspending Time - life - photography - death (Nagaizumi-cho, Shizuoka: Izu Photo Museum, 2010).
4. See Sidney Kasfir, "African Art and Authenticity: A Text with a Shadow" in Reading the Contemporary: African Art from Theory to the Marketplace, eds. Olu Oguibe and Okwui Enwezor (London: Institute of International Visual Arts, 1999): 88-113 and a special issue of African Arts, vol. 9 no. 3 (Los Angeles, 1976) dedicated to the issue of authenticity.
5. Communicated in a personal interview, July 2010, Paris.
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